Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Preparation and Standardisation of Smoke-Water for Seed Germination and Plant Growth Stimulation

  • Published:
Journal of Plant Growth Regulation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Smoke-water (SW) has a positive effect on seed germination in many plant species and its application in various fields of plant science has become popular. The method of preparing SW is relatively easy and inexpensive. However, many researchers working in the field of smoke biology are still unfamiliar with preparing SW and testing it for bioactivity. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a low-cost efficient apparatus to produce SW using grasses, its standardisation and quantification of major active biomolecules. The prepared crude SW was diluted with distilled water (SW:DW) to 75:25, 50:50 and 25:75 (v/v) and these sub-dilutions were further diluted to 1:500; 1:1000; 1:1500; 1:2000; 1:2500; 1:3000 and 1:3500 (v/v). For the standardisation of SW, lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Grand Rapids) were tested to determine the best working concentration. The ratio 1:2500 (v/v) from the sub-dilution 25:75 (v/v) of SW was the best for germination of lettuce seeds in the dark, achieving 91% germination against the water control that had only 7–10% germination. This is the first study which reports the levels of stimulatory (karrikinolide 1, KAR1 and karrikinolide 2, KAR2) and inhibitory (trimethylbutenolide, TMB) compounds present in SW using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray positive ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI(+)-MS/MS).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdollahi MR, Mehrshad B, Moosavi SS (2011) Effect of method of seed treatment with plant derived smoke solutions on germination and seedling growth of milk thistle (Silybum marianum L). Seed Sci Technol 39:225–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adkins SW, Peters NCB (2001) Smoke derived from burnt vegetation stimulates germination of arable weeds. Seed Sci Res 11:213–222

    Google Scholar 

  • Aeron A, Kumar S, Pandey P, Maheshwari DK (2011) Emerging role of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in agrobiology. In: Maheshwari DKK (ed) Bacteria in agrobiology: crop ecosystems. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Andreoli C, Gigante D, Nunziata A (2003) A review of in vitro methods to assess the biological activity of tobacco smoke with the aim of reducing the toxicology of smoke. Toxicol In Vitro 17:587–594

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin IT, Staszak-Kozinski L, Davidson R (1994) Up in smoke I Smoke derived germination cues for post-fire annual, Nicotiana attenuata Torr ex Watson. J Chem Ecol 20:2345–2371

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter BJM, Granger JE, Van Staden J (1995) Plant-derived smoke and seed germination: is all smoke good smoke? That is the burning question. S Afr J Bot 61:275–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter BJM, Van Staden J, Granger JE, Brown NAC (1994) Plant-derived smoke and smoke extracts stimulate seed germination of the fire-climax grass Themeda triandra. Environ Exp Bot 34:217–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond WJ, Van Wilgen BW (1996) Plants and fire. Chapman and Hall, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher C (1981) Autecological and population studies of Orothamnus zeyheri in the Cape of South Africa. In: Synge H (ed) The biological aspects of rare plant conservation. Wiley, London. ISBN 0-471-28004-6, p 343–353

  • Brits GJ (1986) Influence of fluctuating temperatures and H2O2 treatment on germination of Leucospermum cordifolium and Serruria florida (Proteaceae) seeds. S Afr J Bot 52:286–293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown NAC (1993a) Promotion of germination of fynbos seeds by plant-derived smoke. New Phytol 123:575–583

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown NAC (1993b) Seed germination in the fynbos fire ephemeral, Syncarpha vestita (L) B-Nord is promoted by smoke, aqueous extracts of smoke and charred wood derived from burning the ericoid-leaved shrub, Passerina vulgaris Thoday. Int J Wildland Fire 3:203–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown NAC, Van Staden J (1997) Smoke as a germination cue: a review. Plant Growth Regul 22:115–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chiwocha SDS, Dixon KW, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Merritt DJ, Nelson DC, Riseborough J-AM, Smith SM, Stevens JC (2009) Karrikins: a new family of plant growth regulators in smoke. Plant Sci 177:252–256

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chumpookam J, Lin HL, Shiesh CC (2012) Effect of smoke-water on seed germination and seedling growth of papaya (Carica papaya cv Tainung No 2). HortScience 47:741–744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coons J, Coutant N, Lawrence B, Finn D, Finn S (2014) An effective system to produce smoke solutions from dried plant tissue for seed germination studies. Appl Plant Sci 2:1300097

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daws M, Davies J, Pritchard H, Brown N, Van Staden J (2007) Butenolide from plant-derived smoke enhances germination and seedling growth of arable weed species. Plant Growth Regul 51:73–82

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange JH, Boucher C (1990) Autecological studies on Audounia capitata (Bruniaceae): plant-derived smoke as a seed germination cue. S Afr J Bot 56:700–703

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange JH, Brown NAC, Van Staden J (2018) Perspectives on the contributions by South African researchers in igniting global research on smoke-stimulated seed germination. S Afr J Bot 115:219–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon KW, Roche S (1995) The role of combustion products (smoke) in stimulating ex situ and in situ germination of western Australian plants. Comb Proc-Intern Plant Propag Soc 45:53–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon KW, Roche S, Pate JS (1995) The promotive effect of smoke derived from burnt native vegetation on seed germination of Western Australian plants. Oecologia 101:185–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drewes EE, Smith MT, Van Staden J (1995) The effect of a plant-derived smoke extract on the germination of light-sensitive lettuce seed. Plant Growth Regul 16:205–209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dyer WE (1995) Exploiting weed seed dormancy and germination requirements through agronomic practices. Weed Sci 43:498–503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW, Trengrove RD (2004) A compound from smoke that promotes seed germination. Science 305:977

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW, Trengove RD (2009) Identification of alkyl substituted 2H-furo [2,3-c] pyran-2-ones as germination stimulants present in smoke. J Agric Food Chem 57:9475–9480

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghebrehiwot HM, Kulkarni MG, Kirkman KP, Van Staden J (2008) Smoke-water and a smoke-isolated butenolide improve germination and seedling vigour of Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter under high temperature and low osmotic potential. J Agron Crop Sci 194:270–277

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holley RA, Patel D (2005) Improvement in shelf-life and safety of perishable foods by plant essential oils and smoke antimicrobials. Food Microbiol 22:273–292

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hrdlička J, Gucký T, Novák O, Kulkarni M, Gupta S, van Staden J, Dolezal K (2019) Quantification of karrikins in smoke water using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Plant Methods (unpublished)

  • Jäger AK, Light ME, Van Staden J (1996) Effects of source of plant material and temperature on the production of smoke extracts that promote germination of light-sensitive lettuce seeds. Environ Exp Bot 36:421–429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jain N, Van Staden J (2007) The potential of the smoke-derived compound 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one as a priming agent for tomato seeds. Seed Sci Res 17:175–181

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain N, Kulkarni MG, Van Staden J (2006) A butenolide, isolated from smoke, can overcome the detrimental effects of extreme temperatures during tomato seed germination. Plant Growth Regul 49:263–267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain N, Ascough GD, Van Staden J (2008a) A smoke-derived butenolide alleviates HgCl2 and ZnCl2 inhibition of water uptake during germination and subsequent growth of tomato-possible involvement of aquaporins. J Plant Physiol 165:1422–1427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jain N, Stirk WA, Van Staden J (2008b) Cytokinin-and auxin-like activity of a butenolide isolated from plant-derived smoke. S Afr J Bot 74:327–331

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keeley JE (1993) Smoke-induced flowering in the fire-lily Cyrtanthus ventricosus. S Afr J Bot 59:638

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni MG, Sparg SG, Light ME, Van Staden J (2006) Stimulation of rice (Oryza sativa L.) seedling vigour by smoke-water and butenolide. J Agron Crop Sci 192:395–398

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni MG, Ascough GD, Van Staden J (2008) Smoke-water and a smoke isolated butenolide improve growth and yield of tomatoes under greenhouse conditions. HortTechnology 18:449–454

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni MG, Ascough GD, Verschaeve L, Baeten K, Arruda MP, Van Staden J (2010) Effect of smoke-water and a smoke-isolated butenolide on the growth and genotoxicity of commercial onion. Sci Hort 124:434–439

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni MG, Light ME, Van Staden J (2011) Plant-derived smoke: old technology with possibilities for economic applications in agriculture and horticulture. S Afr J Bot 77:972–979

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levyns MR (1935) Germination in some South African seeds. J South Afr Bot 1:161–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Light ME (2006) The role of smoke as a germination cue. PhD thesis, School of Biological and Conservation Sciences University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

  • Light ME, Van Staden J (2004) The potential of smoke in seed technology. S Afr J Bot 70:97–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Light ME, Gardner MJ, Jäger AK, Van Staden J (2002) Dual regulation of seed germination by smoke solutions. Plant Growth Regul 37:135–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Light ME, Burger BV, Van Staden J (2005) Formation of a seed germination promoter from carbohydrates and amino acids. J Agric Food Chem 53:5936–5942

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Light ME, Burger BV, Staerk D, Kohout L, Van Staden J (2010) Butenolides from plant derived smoke: natural plant growth regulators with antagonistic actions on seed germination. J Nat Prod 73:267–269

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maga JA (1988) Smoke in food processing. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 160

    Google Scholar 

  • Mavi K, Light ME, Demir I, Van Staden J, Yasar F (2010) Positive effect of smoke-derived butenolide priming on melon seedling emergence and growth. New Zeal J Crop Hort 38:147–155

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moll EJ, Gubb AA (1981) Aspects of the ecology of Staavia dodii in the South Western Cape of South Africa. In: Synge H The biological aspects of rare plant conservation. Wiley, Chichester. ISBN 0-471-28004-6, p 331–342

  • Nautiyal CS, Chauhan PS, Nene YL (2007) Medicinal smoke reduces airborne bacteria. J Ethnopharmacol 114:446–451

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson DC, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW, Smith SM (2012) Regulation of seed germination and seedling growth by chemical signals from burning vegetation. Annu Rev Plant Biol 63:107–130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paasonen M, Hannukkala A, Rämö S, Haapala H, Hietaniemi V (2003) Smoke — a novel application of a traditional means to improve grain quality. Nordic Association of Agricultural Scientists 22nd Congress, Turku, Finland

  • Papenfus HB, Kumari A, Kulkarni MG, Finnie JF, Van Staden J (2014) Smoke-water enhances in vitro pollen germination and tube elongation of three species of Amaryllidaceae. S Afr J Bot 90:87–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roche S, Dixon KW, Pate JS (1994) Smoke—a new process for germinating Australian plants. Aust Hort 91:46–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Roche S, Koch JM, Dixon KW (1997) Smoke enhanced seed germination for mine rehabilitation in the southwest of Western Australia. Restor Ecol 5:191–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sakuma H, Munakata S, Sugawara S (1981) Volatile products of cellulose pyrolysis. Agric Biol Chem 45:443–451

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Senaratna T, Dixon K, Bunn E, Touchell D (1999) Smoke-saturated water promotes somatic embryogenesis in geranium. Plant Growth Regul 28:95–99

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuman GE, Rauzi F (1981) Microwave drying of rangeland forage samples. J Range Manage 34:426–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soengas P, Hand P, Vicente JG, Pole JM, Pink DA (2007) Identification of quantitative trait loci for resistance to Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris in Brassica rapa. Theor Appl Genet 114:637–645

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sparg SG, Kulkarni MG, Van Staden J (2006) Aerosol smoke and smoke-water stimulation of seedling vigor of a commercial maize cultivar. Crop Sci 46:1336–1340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens JC, Merritt DJ, Flematti GR, Ghisalberti EL, Dixon KW (2007) Seed germination of agricultural weeds is promoted by the butenolide 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one under laboratory and field conditions. Plant Soil 298:113–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stirk WA, Kulkarni MG, Van Staden J (2016) Effect of smoke-derived extracts on Spirodela polyrhiza, an aquatic plant grown in nutrient-rich and -depleted conditions. Aquat Bot 129:31–34

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor JLS, Van Staden J (1996) Root initiation in Vigna radiata (L) Wilczek hypocotyl cuttings is stimulated by smoke-derived extracts. Plant Growth Regul 18:165–168

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor JLS, Van Staden J (1998) Plant-derived smoke solutions stimulate the growth of Lycopersicon esculentum roots in vitro. Plant Growth Regul 26:77–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Todorović S, Giba Z, Živković S, Grubišić D, Konjević R (2005) Stimulation of empress tree seed germination by liquid smoke. Plant Growth Regul 47:141–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Staden J, Brown NAC, Jäger AK, Johnson TA (2000) Smoke as a germination cue. Plant Species Biol 15:167–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Staden J, Jäger AK, Light ME, Burger BV (2004) Isolation of the major germination cue from plant-derived smoke. S Afr J Bot 70:654–659

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verschaeve L, Maes J, Light ME, Van Staden J (2006) Genetic toxicity testing of 3-methyl-2H-furo[2,3-c]pyran-2-one, an important biologically active compound from plant-derived smoke. Mutat Res 611:89–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ye XJ, Wang ZQ, Li QS (2002) The ecological agriculture movement in modern China. Agric Ecosyst Environ 92:261–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yin YN, Chen YF, Li SM, Guo JH (2005) RAPD analysis of plant pathogenic coryneform bacteria. Wei Sheng Wu Xue Bao (Microbial Technol) 45:837–841

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Mr George Carelse (Workshop Manager), School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg, for designing an efficient smoke-water apparatus. Dr. Martin Pošta, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Prague, Czech Republic, is thanked for providing the standard of TMB. The University of KwaZulu-Natal and the National Research Foundation, South Africa, are acknowledged for financial support provided, as well as the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech Republic, ERDF project “Plants as a tool for sustainable global development” (No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000827).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal Pietermaritzburg, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa

    Shubhpriya Gupta, Nelson Ngoroyemoto, Nkhanedzeni K. Nemahunguni, Manoj G. Kulkarni & Johannes Van Staden

  2. Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany CAS, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic

    Jakub Hrdlička, Ondřej Novák & Karel Doležal

  3. Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic

    Tomáš Gucký & Karel Doležal

Authors
  1. Shubhpriya Gupta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jakub Hrdlička
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nelson Ngoroyemoto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nkhanedzeni K. Nemahunguni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tomáš Gucký
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ondřej Novák
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Manoj G. Kulkarni
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Karel Doležal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Johannes Van Staden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Johannes Van Staden.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

It is declared that the authors have no conflict of interest in the publication of this article.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 256 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gupta, S., Hrdlička, J., Ngoroyemoto, N. et al. Preparation and Standardisation of Smoke-Water for Seed Germination and Plant Growth Stimulation. J Plant Growth Regul 39, 338–345 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-019-09985-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-019-09985-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation