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DInSAR-based monitoring of land subsidence related to groundwater over-exploitation: example from developing urban center of Nairobi, Kenya

Suivi par DInSAR de la subsidence du sol liée à la surexploitation des eaux souterraines : exemple du centre urbain en expansion de Nairobi, Kenya

Monitoreo basado en DInSAR de la subsidencia del terreno relacionada con la sobreexplotación de las aguas subterráneas: ejemplo del centro urbano en desarrollo de Nairobi, Kenia

基于 DInSAR 的与地下水过量开采相关的地面沉降监测:以肯尼亚内罗毕正发展的城市为例

Monitoramento baseado no DInSAR da subsidência de terreno relacionada com a superexploração das águas subterrâneas: exemplo do centro urbano em desenvolvimento de Nairóbi, Quênia

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Abstract

Over-exploitation of groundwater in many evolving urban settings causes ground subsidence and permanent loss of aquifer storage capacity. DInSAR (differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar) time series data from 2016 to 2019 were used to monitor and model the surface deformation around Nairobi, Kenya, where the water demand has exceeded the supply without capacity augmentation for over two decades. The aquifer system constitutes hard rock to semiconfined ash beds in volcanic terrain. The Small Baseline DInSAR technique identified the spatial pattern of subsidence and magnitude (line-of-sight (LOS) velocity), which exceeds 41 mm/year in the semiconfined aquifer towards the western-central part of Nairobi. The spatial distribution of subsidence is consistent with the groundwater level drop and probable compaction modeled using aquifer characteristics for 1950–2015. The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data at a station from 2007 to 2018 indicate a cumulative 4-cm subsidence which is comparable to ~2.5-cm LOS subsidence from the present study for 2016–2019. The correlation with other hydrological data suggests the aquifer is experiencing inelastic subsidence due to unsustainable groundwater extraction, putting a massive strain on Nairobi’s aquifer system. The present DInSAR based study establishes its effectiveness in the monitoring of groundwater over-exploitation-based subsidence and associated hazard to the aquifer in emerging urban centers.

Résumé

La surexploitation des eaux souterraines dans denombreux contextes urbains en expansion cause la subsidence du sol et la perte définitivede la capacité d’emmagasinement de l’aquifère. Une série temporelle DInSAR (radarà synthèse d'ouverture interférométrique différentielle) de 2016 à 2019 a été exploitéepour le suivi et la modélisation de la déformation du sol autour de Nairobi,Kenya, où la demande en eau excède la disponibilité sans capacitéd’augmentation pour plus de deux décennies. Le système aquifère est constituéde roches dures et de niveaux de cendres semi-captifs en terrain volcanique. Latechnique «Small Baseline DInSAR» a permis d’identifier ladistribution spatiale de la subsidence et sa magnitude (vitesse«line-of-sight» - LOS), qui dépasse 41 mm/an pour l’aquifèresemi-captif dans le secteur centre-ouest de la ville de Nairobi. Ladistribution spatiale de la subsidence est cohérente avec la baisse du niveaude nappe et la compaction probable modélisée en utilisant les caractéristiquesde l’aquifère pour la période 1950-2015. Les données du système mondial denavigation par satellites (GNSS) à une station de 2007 à 2018 indiquent unesubsidence cumulée de 4 cm, comparable à la subsidence LOS de ~2.5 cm issue dela présente étude pour la période 2016-2019. La corrélation avec d’autresdonnées hydrologiques suggère que l’aquifère expérimente une subsidence inélastiquedue à l’extraction non durable de l’eau souterraine, exerçant une contraintemassive sur le système aquifère de Nairobi. La présente étude montrel’efficacité des données DInSAR pour le suivi de la subsidence causée par lasurexploitation de l’eau souterraine et l’aléa résultant pour l’aquifère dansles contextes de centres urbains émergents.

Resumen

Lasobreexplotación de las aguas subterráneas en muchos ámbitos urbanos enevolución provoca el hundimiento del suelo y la pérdida permanente de lacapacidad de almacenamiento de los acuíferos. Se utilizaron datos de seriestemporales DInSAR (radar de apertura sintética interferométrica diferencial) de2016 a 2019 para supervisar y modelar la deformación de la superficie alrededorde Nairobi, Kenia, donde la demanda de agua ha superado el suministro sinaumento de la capacidad durante más de dos décadas. El sistema acuífero estáconstituido por lechos de roca dura hasta ceniza semiconfinada en terrenovolcánico. La técnica Small Baseline DInSAR identificó el patrón espacial desubsidencia y la magnitud (velocidad de la línea de visión (LOS)), que superalos 41 mm/año en el acuífero semiconfinado hacia la parte centro-occidental dela ciudad de Nairobi. La distribución espacial de la subsidencia es coherentecon el descenso del nivel de las aguas subterráneas y la probable compactaciónmodelada utilizando las características del acuífero para 1950-2015. Los datosdel Sistema Global de Navegación por Satélite (GNSS) en una estación de 2007 a2018 indican una subsidencia acumulada de 4 cm que es comparable a lasubsidencia de ~2.5 cm de LOS del presente estudio para 2016 a 2019. Lacorrelación con otros datos hidrológicos sugiere que el acuífero estáexperimentando un hundimiento inelástico debido a la extracción insostenible deagua subterránea, lo que supone una enorme presión sobre el sistema acuífero deNairobi. El presente estudio basado en DInSAR establece su eficacia en elseguimiento de la subsidencia basada en la sobreexplotación de las aguassubterráneas y el peligro asociado al acuífero en los centros urbanosemergentes.

摘要

在许多不断发展的城市, 过度开采地下水会导致地面沉降和含水层储量的持续减少。肯尼亚内罗毕水资源需求已超过供应量, 在愈20年没有储量增加, 因此使用 2016 年至 2019 年的 DInSAR(差分干涉合成孔径雷达)时间序列数据对其周边地表变形进行了监测和建模。火山区中含水层系统由硬质岩至半承压灰层构成。小基线 DInSAR 技术确定了沉降和震级(视线 (LOS) 速度)的空间分布, 在朝向内罗毕市中西部的半承压含水层中, 沉降速度超过 41 mm/yr。沉降的空间分布与使用1950-2015 年含水层特征模拟的地下水位下降和可能的压密一致。2007 年至 2018 年在一个站点的全球导航卫星系统(GNSS)数据表明累积 4 cm的沉降与本研究 2016 年至 2019 年的约 2.5 cm LOS 沉降相当。与其他水文数据的相关性表明由于不可持续的地下水开采, 含水层正在经历非弹性下降, 给内罗毕的含水层系统带来巨大压力。目前基于 DInSAR 的研究确立了其在监测地下水过量开采引起的沉降和新兴城市中心含水层相关危害方面的有效性。

Resumo

A superexploraçãodas águas subterrâneas em muitos cenários urbanos em evolução provoca asubsidência do terreno e a perda permanente da capacidade de armazenamento dosaquíferos. Os dados da série temporal do DInSAR (Interferometria Diferencialpor Radar de Abertura Sintética) de 2016 a 2019 foram utilizados para monitorare modelar a deformação da superfície em torno de Nairóbi, Quênia, onde aprocura de água excedeu a oferta sem aumento de capacidade durante mais de duasdécadas. O sistema aquífero constitui leitos de rocha dura a cinzassemiconfinadas em terreno vulcânico. A técnica DInSAR Small Baseline identificouo padrão espacial de subsidência e magnitude (velocidade da linha de visão (LDV)),que excede 41 mm/ano no aquífero semiconfinado em direção à parteocidental-central da cidade de Nairóbi. A distribuição espacial da subsidênciaé consistente com a queda do nível das águas subterrâneas e a provávelcompactação modelada utilizando as características do aquífero para 1950-2015.Os dados do Sistema Global de Navegação por Satélite (GNSS) numa estação de2007 a 2018 indicam uma subsidência acumulada de 4 cm que é comparável a ~2.5cm de subsidência na LDV do presente estudo para 2016 a 2019. A correlação comoutros dados hidrológicos sugere que o aquífero está apresentando umasubsidência inelástica devido à extração insustentável das águas subterrâneas,colocando uma enorme tensão no sistema aquífero de Nairóbi. O presente estudobaseado em DInSAR estabelece a sua eficácia no monitoramento da subsidênciabaseada na superexploração das águas subterrâneas e dos riscos associados aoaquífero nos centros urbanos emergentes.

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Acknowledgements

The Sentinel data of the study region were downloaded from ESA-Copernicus and we sincerely thank Morishita for sharing the Python code for SBAS analysis. The constructive comments and suggestion by learned reviewers, Tom G. Farr (JPL) and an anonymous reviewer brought clarity to the revised manuscript. This work corresponds to the publication number of NGRI/Lib/2020/Pub-206 of CSIR-NGRI.

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Sahadevan, D.K., Pandey, A.K. DInSAR-based monitoring of land subsidence related to groundwater over-exploitation: example from developing urban center of Nairobi, Kenya. Hydrogeol J 29, 2461–2473 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-021-02384-2

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