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Recommended guiding principles for reporting on camera trapping research

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Abstract

Camera traps are used by scientists and natural resource managers to acquire ecological data, and the rapidly increasing camera trapping literature highlights how popular this technique has become. Nevertheless, the methodological information reported in camera trap publications can vary widely, making replication of the study difficult. Here we propose a series of guiding principles for reporting methods and results obtained using camera traps. Attributes of camera trapping we cover include: (i) specifying the model(s) of camera traps(s) used, (ii) mode of deployment, (iii) camera settings, and (iv) study design. In addition to suggestions regarding best practice data coding and analysis, we present minimum principles for standardizing information that we believe should be reported in all peer-reviewed papers. Standardised reporting enables more robust comparisons among studies, facilitates national and global reviews, enables greater ease of study replication, and leads to improved wildlife research and management outcomes.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to recognise the role of the following organisations whose support helped augment the preparation of this manuscript; The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust, The Australasian Wildlife Management Society and the NSW Royal Zoological Society. Thank you to James D. Nichols and Andrew Bengsen who provided constructive comments on this manuscript. Marcella Kelly, Karen Hodges and an anonymous referee made several changes to this manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, Biosecurity NSW, NSW Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 530, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia

    P. D. Meek & G. Ballard

  2. Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2351, Australia

    P. D. Meek & G. Ballard

  3. Invasive Animals CRC, PO Box 530, Coffs Harbour, NSW, 2450, Australia

    P. D. Meek

  4. Nature Conservation Section, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 733, Queanbeyan, NSW, 2620, Australia

    A. Claridge

  5. School of Physical, Environmental and Mathematical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Northcott Drive, Canberra, ACT, 2600, Australia

    A. Claridge

  6. North Carolina Museum of Natural History, Raleigh, NC, USA

    R. Kays

  7. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    R. Kays

  8. The University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia

    K. Moseby

  9. Mpala Research Centre, Wildlife Conservation Society, PO Box 555, Nanyuki, 10400, Kenya

    T. O’Brien

  10. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Centre, 12100 Beech Forest Road, Laurel, MD, 20708, USA

    A. O’Connell

  11. Small Wild Cat Conservation Foundation, 390 Incon Road, Corrales, NM, 87048, USA

    J. Sanderson

  12. Saguaro National Park, 3693 South Old Spanish Trail, Tucson, AZ, 85730, USA

    D. E. Swann

  13. Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego Zoo Global, 15600 San Pasqual Valley Road, Escondido, CA, 92027-7000, USA

    M. Tobler

  14. Wildlife Ecology and Consulting, 709 56th Street, Oakland, CA, 94609, USA

    S. Townsend

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  1. P. D. Meek
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  2. G. Ballard
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  3. A. Claridge
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  4. R. Kays
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  6. T. O’Brien
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  7. A. O’Connell
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Correspondence to P. D. Meek.

Additional information

Communicated by Karen E. Hodges.

Appendix

Appendix

List of standard camera trap terms (from Meek et al. 2012a; Rovero et al. 2013) with additional definitions

Alignment:

Term used to describe the placement of a camera and the cardinal direction, it can be two dimensional thus a horizontal (standard placement—lens perpendicular to the ground) or vertical (lens facing downwards at the ground) alignment as well as a horizontal-cardinal direction

Burst mode:

A camera trap setting that allows continuous images to be taken following a trigger event, see also rapidfire

Camera trap:

A term used to describe a camera that captures images of wildlife using heat and motion sensing, time lapse, mechanical, seismic sensors or an active infra red sensor system

Camera trap set:

Connotation of a trap ‘set’ which describes the immediate area where camera/s are placed, can be more than one camera per set

Camera trap array:

The number of camera traps set in a certain pattern and defined location, referring to more than one camera trap at a study area

CF card:

The acronym for Compact Flash cards, a mass storage device used by older camera traps, virtually all new models (at the time of publication) now use SD cards

Covert surveillance:

Use of cameras set to catch illegal actions by people

Delay:

A program function available on some models. This setting has many forms but typically allows the user to set a period of time where the camera trap is inactive or ‘hibernating’ before or between images

Depth of field:

This refers to the aperture setting and its effect on the focus of objects in the front and rear of the image. Not often adjustable in camera traps

Detection zone:

The area in which a camera trap is able to detect the heat signature and motion of a target

Event:

The period of time between independent triggers of distinct individuals, regardless of the number of images, to the last image in a sequence

False Positive:

Incorrectly detecting an animal or species when none is present

False Negative:

Failure to detect an animal or species when in fact it is present

Focal point:

Usually the centre of the image (if the image is composed correctly), the subject of interest, the lure, pathway or track centre or bait device

Field of view:

The area captured in a image, usually between 35° and 45°

Fresnel lens:

A lens used by camera traps to direct infrared energy onto the passive infrared (PIR) sensor. These lenses are commonly seen in lighthouses and cause refraction of light

Incandescent:

A white flash (xenon) used by some camera traps, now mostly superseded by white LED

LED:

An abbreviation for light-emitting diode, a form of light source used in modern white flash cameras

Lures:

A generic term referring to an attractant used to encourage animals to investigate a specific point within the detection zone. Lures may be auditory, olfactory, visual, or some combination of these in nature

Night Mode:

This setting is available in some camera traps and allows the device to be set to maximise clarity at night by reducing the illumination power and increasing the speed of the shutter, thus reducing blur

PIR sensor:

Passive detectors of infrared light

Rapidfire:

A camera trap setting that allows images to be taken continuously following a trigger event—see also burst mode

SD card:

The acronym for Secure Digital cards. A removable digital storage medium that is currently the standard in camera traps

Sensitivity:

A setting, often adjustable, that reflects the camera’s response to heat in motion for PIR sensors. Higher sensitivity is associated with more images, and lower sensitivity with fewer images. Increased sensitivity, however, does not guarantee detection of a target

Sequence:

A series of still images or video taken in rapid succession but separated by a time interval less than the set independence interval and forming an animated record of a triggering event

Time lapse:

A program function available on some camera traps. The time-lapse function, or similar function, typically allows a user to prescribe times of day and/or night when the camera is inactive, regardless of activity within the detection zone. Some time-lapse cameras do not have a PIR and, instead, capture images at prescribed times or intervals

Time lapse camera:

Camera traps that do not have a PIR sensor and can be programmed to take images at predetermined times throughout the day regardless of any triggers

Time to first trigger:

The speed of the camera from detection by the PIR sensor to the first image captured

Trigger or Capture speed:

The time difference between detecting heat in motion and capturing an image. Also known as response time. Slower trigger speed (i.e. more time elapsing between trigger and image capture) may decrease the likelihood of capturing a target

Walk test:

A program function available on some camera traps. Walk test, or similar, can be used to identify where a camera will respond to heat in motion. Consequently, it can be used to ‘focus’ the camera’s detection zone, as desired

White LED:

A white flash consisting of white LED’s in an array similar to an infra red array that illuminates the subject at night in full colour and is faster than xenon flash technology

Xenon flash:

An incandescent or white flash that illuminates the subject at night in full colour

Synonyms for camera traps:

Remote camera, remotely activated monitoring camera, trail camera, spy camera, wildlife camera, camera trap, remote-sensing camera, sensor camera, remote sensing camera, remotely-triggered camera, game camera, photo-trapping, sensor camera, heat-and-motion sensing camera

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Meek, P.D., Ballard, G., Claridge, A. et al. Recommended guiding principles for reporting on camera trapping research. Biodivers Conserv 23, 2321–2343 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-014-0712-8

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