Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Large-Eddy Simulation Study of the Effects on Flow of a Heterogeneous Forest at Sub-Tree Resolution

  • Article
  • Published:
Boundary-Layer Meteorology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The effect of three-dimensional plant heterogeneity on flow past a clearing is investigated by means of large-eddy simulation. A detailed representation of the canopy has been acquired by terrestrial laser scanning for a patch of approximately \(328\,\mathrm {m}\) length and \(172\,\mathrm {m}\) width at the field site “Tharandter Wald”, near the city of Dresden, Germany. The scanning data are used to produce a highly resolved, three-dimensional plant area distribution representing the actual canopy. Hence, the vegetation maintains a rich horizontal and vertical structure including the three-dimensional clearing. The scanned plant area density is embedded in a larger domain, which is filled with a heterogeneous forest generated by the virtual canopy generator of Bohrer et al. (Tellus B 59:566–576, 2007). Based on forest inventory maps and airborne laser scanning, the characteristics of the actual canopy are preserved. Furthermore, the topography is extracted from a digital terrain model with some modifications to accommodate for periodic boundary conditions. A large-eddy simulation is performed for neutral atmospheric conditions and compared to simulations of a two-dimensional plant area density and an one-year-long field experiment conducted at the corresponding field site. The results reveal a considerable influence of the plant heterogeneity on the mean velocity field as well as on the turbulent quantities. The three-dimensional environment, e.g., the oblique edges combined with horizontal and vertical variations in plant area density and the topography create a sustained vertical and cross-flow velocity. Downstream of the windward forest edge an enhanced gust zone develops, whose intensity and relative position are influenced by the local canopy density and, therefore, is not constant along the edge. These results lead us to the conclusion that the usage of a three-dimensional plant area distribution is essential for capturing the flow features inside the canopy and within the mixing layer above.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A voxel is the three-dimensional equivalent of a pixel, i.e., a rectangular volume element with its faces aligned parallel to the coordinate axes.

  2. ATKIS®-DGM2 is provided by Staatsbetrieb Geobasisinformation und Vermessung Sachsen (www.landesvermessung.sachsen.de).

References

  • Aschoff T, Spiecker H (2004) Algorithms for the automatic detection of trees in laser scanner data. In: International archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, vol 36, part 8/W2, pp 71–75

  • Bailey B, Stoll R (2013) Turbulence in sparse, organized vegetative canopies: a large-eddy simulation study. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 147:369–400

    Google Scholar 

  • Belcher S, Finnigan J, Harman I (2008) Flows through forest canopies in complex terrain. Ecol Appl 18(6):1436–1453

    Google Scholar 

  • Belcher S, Harman I, Finnigan J (2012) The wind in the willows: flows in forest canopies in complex terrain. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 44:479–504

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernhofer C, Aubinet M, Clement R, Grelle A, Grünwald T, Ibrom A, Jarvis P, Rebmann C, Schulze E, Tenhunen J (2003) Fluxes of carbon, water and energy of European Forests, vol 163 of Ecological studies, chap. Spruce forests (Norway and Sitka spruce, including Douglas fir): carbon and water fluxes and balances, ecological and ecophysiological determinants. Springer, Berlin, pp 99–123, 273 pp

  • Bienert A, Maas H-G (2009) Methods for the automatic geometric registration of terrestrial laserscanner point clouds in forest stands. In: International archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, vol 38, part 3/W8, pp 1–6

  • Bienert A, Queck R, Schmidt A, Bernhofer C, Maas H-G (2010) Voxel space analysis of terrestrial laser scans in forests for wind field modelling. In: International archives of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences, vol 38, part 5, pp 92–97

  • Bienert A, Pech K, Maas H-G (2011) Verfahren zur Registrierung von Laserscannerdaten in Waldbeständen. Swiss For J 162:178–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohrer G, Wolosin M, Brady R, Avissar R (2007) A virtual canopy generator (V-CaGe) for modelling complex heterogeneous forest canopies at high resolution. Tellus B 59:566–576

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohrer G, Katul G, Nathan R, Walko R, Avissar R (2008) Effects of canopy heterogeneity, seed abscission and inertia on wind-driven dispersal kernels of tree seeds. J Ecol 96:569–580

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohrer G, Katul G, Walko R, Avissar R (2009) Exploring the effects of microscale structural heterogeneity of forest canopies using large-eddy simulations. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 132:351–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunet Y, Irvine M (2000) The control of coherent eddies in vegetation canopies: streamwise structure spacing, canopy shear scale and atmospheric stability. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 94:139–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2009) Waldbericht der Bundesregierung 2009, 117 pp

  • Cassiani M, Katul G, Albertson J (2008) The effects of canopy leaf area index on airflow across forest edges: large-eddy simulation and analytical results. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 126:433–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen J, Black T (1991) Measuring leaf area index of plant canopies with branch architecture. Agric For Meteorol 57:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Chester S, Meneveau C (2007) Renormalized numerical simulation of flow over planar and non-planar fractal trees. Environ Fluid Mech 7:289–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalpé B, Masson C (2009) Numerical simulation of wind flow near a forest edge. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 97:228–241

    Google Scholar 

  • de Langre E (2008) Effects of wind on plants. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 40:141–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Deardorff J (1980) Stratocumulus-capped mixed layers derived from a three-dimensional model. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 18:495–527

    Google Scholar 

  • Detto M, Katul G, Siqueira M, Juang J-Y, Stoy P (2008) The structure of turbulence near a tall forest edge: the backward-facing step flow analogy revisited. Ecol Appl 18:1420–1435

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y (2006) Simulation of turbulent flow in an urban forested park damaged by a windstorm. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 120:133–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y (2008a) Edge flow and canopy structure: a large-eddy simulation study. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 126:51–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y (2008b) Impact of forest edge shape on tree stability: a large-eddy simulation study. Forestry 81:299–315

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y (2008c) Influence of foliar density profile on canopy flow: a large-eddy simulation study. Agric For Meteorol 148:976–990

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y (2009) Coherent structures in canopy edge flow: a large-eddy simulation study. J Fluid Mech 630:93–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Brunet Y, Finnigan JJ (2008) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent flow over a forested hill: validation and coherent structure identification. Q J R Meteorol Soc 134:1911–1929

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Bonnefond J-M, Irvine M, Lamaud E, Brunet Y (2011) Long-distance edge effects in a pine forest with a deep and sparse trunk space: in situ and numerical experiments. Agric For Meteorol 151:328–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont S, Irvine M, Bonnefond J-M, Lamaud E, Brunet Y (2012) Turbulent structures in a pine forest with a deep and sparse trunk space: stand and edge regions. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 143:309–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Edburg S, Stock D, Lamb B, Patton E (2012) The effect of the vertical source distribution on scalar statistics within and above a forest canopy. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 142:365–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Eder F, Serafimovich A, Foken T (2013) Coherent structures at a forest edge: properties, coupling and impact of secondary circulations. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 148:285–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Endalew A, Hertog M, Delele M, Baelmans M, Ramon H, Nicolai B, Verboven P (2009) CFD modelling of turbulent airflow through plant systems using 3D canopy architecture. In: Turbulent Heat Mass Transfer 6, 12 pp

  • Endalew A, Debaer C, Rutten N, Vercammen J, Delele M, Ramon H, Nicolaï B, Verboven P (2011) Modelling the effect of tree foliage on sprayer airflow in orchards. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 138:139–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Etling D (2008) Theoretische Meteorologie: Eine Einführung, vol 3. Springer, Berlin 388 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigenwinter C, Bernhofer C, Vogt R (2004) The influence of advection on the short term CO\(_2\)-budget in and above a forest canopy. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 113:201–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernando H (ed) (2012a) Handbook of environmental fluid dynamics, vol 1: overview and fundamentals. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 635 pp

  • Fernando H (ed) (2012b) Handbook of environmental fluid dynamics, vol 2: systems, pollution, modeling, and measurements. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 587 pp

  • Fesquet C, Dupont S, Drobinski P, Dubos T, Barthlott C (2009) Impact of terrain heterogeneity on coherent structure properties: numerical approach. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 133:71–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnigan J (2000) Turbulence in plant canopies. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 32:519–571

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnigan J, Belcher S (2004) Flow over a hill covered with a plant canopy. Q J R Meteorol Soc 130:1–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Finnigan J, Brunet Y (1995) Wind and trees, chap Turbulent airflow in forests on flat and hilly terrain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 3–40, 504 pp

  • Finnigan J, Shaw R, Patton E (2009) Turbulence structure above a vegetation canopy. J Fluid Mech 637:387–424

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzmaurice L, Shaw R, Paw UK, Patton E (2004) Three-dimensional scalar microfront systems in a large-eddy simulation of vegetation canopy flow. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 112:107–127

  • Fontan S, Katul G, Poggi D, Manes C, Ridolfi L (2013) Flume experiments on turbulent flows across gaps of permeable and impermeable boundaries. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 147:21–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank C, Ruck B (2008) Numerical study of the airflow over forest clearings. Forestry 81:259–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao W, Shaw R, Paw U K (1989) Observation of organized structure in turbulent flow within and above a forest canopy. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 47:349–377

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavrilov K, Accary G, Morvan D, Lyubimov D, Mradji S, Bessonov O (2011) Numerical simulation of coherent structures over plant canopy. Flow Turbul Combust 86:89–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham J, Meneveau C (2012) Modeling turbulent flow over fractal trees using renormalized numerical simulation: alternate formulations and numerical experiments. Phys Fluids 24:1–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Grünwald T, Bernhofer C (2007) A decade of carbon, water and energy flux measurements of an old spruce forest at the Anchor Station Tharandt. Tellus B 59:387–396

    Google Scholar 

  • Harman I, Finnigan J (2010) Flow over hills covered by a plant canopy: extension to generalised two-dimensional topography. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 135:51–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Harman I, Finnigan J (2013) Flow over a narrow ridge covered with a plant canopy: a comparison between wind-tunnel observations and linear theory. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 147:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang J, Katul G, Albertson J (2013) The role of coherent turbulent structures in explaining scalar dissimilarity within the canopy sublayer. Environ Fluid Mech 13:571–599

    Google Scholar 

  • Inoue E (1955) Studies of the phenomena of Waving plants (“HONAMI”) caused by wind. J Agric Meteorol 11:18–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Irvine M, Gardiner B, Hill M (1997) The evolution of turbulence across a forest edge. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 84:467–496

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwata H, Asanuma J, Qhtani Y, Mizoguchi Y, Yasuda Y (2009) Vertical length scale of transporting eddies for sensible heat in the unstable roughness sublayer over a forest canopy. J Agric Meteorol 65:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasak H (1996) Error analysis and estimation for the finite volume method with applications to fluid flows. PhD Thesis, Imperial College, London

  • Juang J-Y, Katul G, Siqueira M, Stoy P, McCarthy H (2008) Investigating a hierarchy of Eulerian closure models for scalar transfer inside forested canopies. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 128:1–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Júnior C, Sá L, Pachêco V, de Souza C (2013) Coherent structures detected in the unstable atmospheric surface layer above the Amazon forest. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 115:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaimal J, Finnigan J (1994) Atmospheric boundary layer flows. Oxford University Press, New York, 304 pp

  • Katul G, Mahrt L, Poggi D, Sanz C (2004) One- and two-equation models for canopy turbulence. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 113:81–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Katul G, Finnigan J, Poggi D, Leuning R, Belcher S (2006) The influence of hilly terrain on canopy-atmosphere carbon dioxide exchange. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 118:189–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Kochendorfer J, Paw U K (2011) Field estimates of scalar advection across a canopy edge. Agric For Meteorol 151:584–594

    Google Scholar 

  • Kochendorfer J, Meyers T, Frank J, Massman W, Heuer M (2012) How well can we measure the vertical wind speed? Implications for fluxes of energy and mass. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 145:383–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Kochendorfer J, Meyers T, Frank J, Massman W, Heuer M (2013) Reply to the comment by Mauder on “How well can we measure the vertical wind speed? Implications for fluxes of energy and mass”. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 147:337–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus H (2008) Grundlagen der Grenzschicht-Meteorologie. Springer, Berlin 214 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee X (2000) Air motion within and above forest vegetation in non-ideal conditions. For Ecol Manag 135:3–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Lilly D (1967) The representation of small-scale turbulence in numerical simulation experiments. In: Proceedings of IBM scientific computing symposium environmental science, pp 1–24

  • Lopes AS, Palma J, Lopes JV (2013) Improving a two-equation turbulence model for canopy flows using large-eddy simulation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 149:231–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumley L, Panofsky H (1964) The structure of atmospheric turbulence. Interscience, New York, 239 pp

  • Maas H-G, Bienert A, Scheller S, Keane E (2008) Automatic forest inventory parameter determination from terrestrial laserscanner data. Int J Remote Sens 29(5):1579–1593

    Google Scholar 

  • Mauder M (2013) A comment on “How well can we measure the vertical wind speed? Implications for fluxes of energy and mass” by Kochendorfer et al. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 147:329–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Monin S, Obukhov A (1954) Basic laws of turbulent mixing in the atmosphere near the ground. Tr Acad Nauka SSR 24:1963–1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Morse A, Gardiner B, Marshall B (2002) Mechanisms controlling turbulence development across a forest edge. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 103:227–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Novak M, Warland J, Orchansky A, Ketler R, Green S (2000) Wind tunnel and field measurements of turbulent flow in forests. Part I: uniformly thinned stands. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 95:457–495

    Google Scholar 

  • Orlanski I (1976) A simple boundary condition for unbounded hyperbolic flows. J Comput Phys 21:251–269

    Google Scholar 

  • Panferov O, Sogachev A (2008) Influence of gap size on wind damage variables in a forest. Agric For Meteorol 148:1869–1881

    Google Scholar 

  • Patton E, Finnigan J (2012) Handbook of environmental fluid dynamics, vol 1: overview and fundamentals, chap: Canopy turbulence. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 311–327, 635 pp

  • Patton E, Katul G (2009) Turbulent pressure and velocity perturbations induced by gentle hills covered with sparse and dense canopies. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 133:189–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Patton E, Horst T, Sullivan P, Lenschow D, Oncley S, Brown W, Burns S, Guenther A, Held A, Karl T, Mayor S, Rizzo L, Spuler S, Sun J, Turnipseed A, Allwine E, Edburg S, Lamb B, Avissar R, Calhoun R, Kleissl J, Massman W, U K, Weil J (2011) The canopy horizontal array turbulence study. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 92:593–611

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters K, Eiden R (1992) Modelling the dry deposition velocity of aerosol particles to a spruce forest. Atmos Environ 26A:2555–2564

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G (2007a) The ejection-sweep cycle over bare and forested gentle hills: a laboratory experiment. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 122:493–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G (2007b) An experimental investigation of the mean momentum budget inside dense canopies on narrow gentle hilly terrain. Agric For Meteorol 144:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G (2007c) Turbulent flows on forested hilly terrain: the recirculation region. Q J R Meteorol Soc 133:1027–1039

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G, Albertson J, Ridolfi L (2007) An experimental investigation of turbulent flows over a hilly surface. Phys Fluids 19:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G, Finnigan J, Belcher S (2008) Analytical models for the mean flow inside dense canopies on gentle hilly terrain. Q J R Meteorol Soc 134:1095–1112

    Google Scholar 

  • Poggi D, Katul G, Vidakovic B (2011) The role of wake production on the scaling laws of scalar concentration fluctuation spectra inside dense canopies. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 139:83–95

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope SB (2000) Turbulent flows. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 806 pp

  • Queck R, Bernhofer C (2010) Constructing wind profiles in forests from limited measurements of wind and vegetation structure. Agric For Meteorol 150:724–735

    Google Scholar 

  • Queck R, Bienert A, Maas H-G, Harmansa S, Goldberg V, Bernhofer C (2012) Wind fields in heterogeneous conifer canopies: parameterisation of momentum absorption using high-resolution 3D vegetation scans. Eur J For Res 131:165–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Raupach M, Thom A (1981) Turbulence in and above plant canopies. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 13:97–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Raupach M, Bradley E, Ghadiri H (1987) A wind tunnel investigation into the aerodynamic effect of forest clearings on the nesting of Abbott’s Boody on Christmas Island. Tech Rep. CSIRO Div Environ Mech, Canberra, 23 pp

  • Raupach M, Finnigan J, Brunet Y (1996) Coherent eddies and turbulence in vegetation canopies: the mixing-layer analogy. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 78:351–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Raynor G (1971) Wind and temperature structure in a coniferous forest and a contiguous field. For Sci 17:351–363

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross A (2008) Large-eddy simulations of flow over forested ridges. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 128:59–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross A (2011) Scalar transport over forested hills. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 141:179–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross A (2012) Boundary-layer flow within and above a forest canopy of variable density. Q J R Meteorol Soc 138:1259–1272

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross A, Baker T (2013) Flow over partially forested ridges. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 146:375–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross A, Vosper S (2005) Neutral turbulent flow over forested hills. Q J R Meteorol Soc 131:1841–1862

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruck B, Frank C, Tischmacher M (2012) On the influence of windward edge structure and stand density on the flow characteristics at forest edges. Eur J For Res 131:177–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagaut P (1998) Large eddy simulation for incompressible flows. Springer, Berlin 426 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlegel F, Stiller J, Bienert A, Maas H-G, Queck R, Bernhofer C (2012) Large-eddy simulation of inhomogeneous canopy flows using high resolution terrestrial laser scanning data. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 142:223–243

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlichting H, Gersten K (2000) Boundary layer theory, 8th edn. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt H, Schumann U (1989) Coherent structure of the convective boundary layer derived from large-eddy simulations. J Fluid Mech 200:511–562

    Google Scholar 

  • Schröttle J, Dörnbrack A (2013) Turbulence structure in a diabatically heated forest canopy composed of fractal Pythagoras trees. Theor Comput Fluid Dyn 23:337–359

    Google Scholar 

  • Serafimovich A, Thomas C, Foken T (2011) Vertical and horizontal transport of energy and matter by coherent motions in a tall spruce canopy. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 140:429–451

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw R (1977) Secondary wind speed maxima inside plant canopies. J Appl Meteorol 16:514–521

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw R, Patton E (2003) Canopy element influences on resolved- and subgrid-scale energy within a large-eddy simulation. Agric For Meteorol 115:5–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw R, Pereira A (1982) Aerodynamic roughness of a plant canopy: a numerical experiment. Agric Meteorol 26:51–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw R, Schumann U (1992) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent flow above and within a forest. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 61:47–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw R, den Hartog G, Neumann H (1988) Influence of foliar density and thermal stability on profiles of Reynolds stress and turbulence intensity in a deciduous forest. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 45:391–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Sogachev A (2009) A note on two-equation closure modelling of canopy flow. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 130:423–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Sogachev A, Leclerc M, Zhang G, Rannik Ů, Vesala T (2008) CO\(_2\) fluxes near a forest edge: a numerical study. Ecol Appl 16(6):1454–1469

    Google Scholar 

  • Sogachev A, Panferov O, Ahrends B, Doering C, Jørgensen H (2011) Numerical assessment of the effect of forest structure changes on CO\(_2\) flux footprints for the flux tower in Solling, Germany. Agric For Meteorol 151:746–754

    Google Scholar 

  • Su H-B, Shaw R, Paw U K (2000) Two-point correlation analysis of neutrally stratified flow within and above a forest from Large-Eddy simulation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 49:423–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Thom A (1975) Vegetation and the atmosphere, vol 1: principles, chap: Momentum, mass and heat exchange of plant communities. Academic Press, New York, , pp 57–109, 298 pp

  • Vosselman G, Maas H-G (2010) Airborne and terrestrial laser scanning. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, 336 pp

  • Wang W, Yi C (2012) A new nonlinear analytical model for canopy flow over a forested hill. Theor Appl Climatol 109:549–563

    Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe T (2009) LES study on the structure of coherent eddies inducing predominant perturbations in velocities in the roughness sublayer over plant canopies. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 87(1):39–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Weller G, Tabor G, Jasak H, Fureby C (1998) A tensorial approach to computational continuum mechanics using object-oriented techniques. Comput Phys 12(6):620–631

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson J (1988) A second-order closure model for flow through vegetation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 42:371–392

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang B, Morse A, Shaw R, Paw U K (2006a) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent flow across a forest edge. Part II: momentum and turbulent kinetic energy budgets. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 121:433–457

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang B, Raupach M, Shaw R, Paw U K, Morse A (2006b) Large-eddy simulation of turbulent flow across a forest edge. Part I: flow statistics. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 120:377–412

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang B, Shaw R, Paw U K (2006c) Wind loading on trees across a forest edge: a large eddy simulation. Agric For Meteorol 141:133–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Yue W, Parlange M, Meneveau C, Zhu W, van Hout R, Katz J (2007) Large-eddy simulation of plant canopy flows using plant-scale representation. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 124:183–203

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The work was supported by the German National Science Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) within the project “Turbulent Exchange Processes between Forested Areas and the Atmosphere” as a part of the DFG priority programme 1276 MetStröm: Multiple Scales in Fluid Mechanics and Meteorology. Computational facilities were provided by the Center for Information Services and High Performance Computing (ZIH) of the Technische Universität Dresden. We gratefully acknowledge Gil Bohrer at the Ohio State University, USA for his comments and his help on the adaptation of the virtual canopy generator. We also thank the two anonymous reviewers whose comments significantly improved the quality of the article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany

    Fabian Schlegel & Jörg Stiller

  2. Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany

    Anne Bienert & Hans-Gerd Maas

  3. Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany

    Ronald Queck & Christian Bernhofer

Authors
  1. Fabian Schlegel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jörg Stiller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anne Bienert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hans-Gerd Maas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ronald Queck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Christian Bernhofer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fabian Schlegel.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schlegel, F., Stiller, J., Bienert, A. et al. Large-Eddy Simulation Study of the Effects on Flow of a Heterogeneous Forest at Sub-Tree Resolution. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 154, 27–56 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-014-9962-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-014-9962-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation