Abstract
Despite high heritability, no research has followed children with ADHD to parenthood to study their offspring and parenting behaviors. Given greater prevalence of ADHD in males and lack of research involving fathers, this study evaluated offspring of fathers with and without ADHD histories for ADHD and disruptive behavior and compared fathers’ parenting behaviors. Male fathers (N = 29) from the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS) participated with their preschool-aged offspring. Fathers completed self-reported measures, and father-child dyads completed an interaction task. ADHD offspring had elevated ADHD symptoms and behavior dysregulation. All fathers displayed positive parenting. ADHD fathers reported lower supportive responses to their child’s negative emotions than comparison fathers, yet rated their parenting as more efficacious. ADHD offspring were distinguishable as early as age 3; thus, earlier diagnosis and intervention may be feasible for this at-risk population. Future research should investigate the acceptability and efficacy of parent training for fathers with ADHD.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA (2007) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry 164(6):942–948
Gibbins C, Weiss M (2007) Clinical recommendations in current practice guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in adults. Curr Psychiatry Rep 9(5):420–426
Barkley RA, Murphy KR, Fischer M (2008) ADHD in adults: what the science says. Guilford Press, New York, pp 171–175
Barkley RA (2014) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment. Guilford Publications, New York
Hechtman L, Swanson JM, Sibley MH et al (2016) Functional adult outcomes 16 years after childhood diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: MTA results. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 55(11):945–952, e942.
Pelham WE, Foster EM, Robb JA (2007) The economic impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Ambul Pediatr 7(1):121–131
Lahey BB, Pelham WE, Loney J et al (2004) Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4–6 years of age. Am J Psychiatry 161(11):2014–2020
Wilens TE, Biederman J, Brown S et al (2002) Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41(3):262–268
Campbell SB, Spieker S, Burchinal M, Poe MD (2006) Trajectories of aggression from toddlerhood to age 9 predict academic and social functioning through age 12. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47(8):791–800
Larsson H, Chang Z, D’Onofrio BM, Lichtenstein P (2014) The heritability of clinically diagnosed attention deficit hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Psychol Med 44(10):2223–2229
Wymbs BT, Wymbs FA, Dawson AE (2015) Child ADHD and ODD behavior interacts with parent ADHD symptoms to worsen parenting and interparental communication. J Abnorm Child Psychol 43(1):107–119
Johnston C, Mash EJ, Miller N, Ninowski JE (2012) Parenting in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clin Psychol Rev 32(4):215–228
DuPaul GJ, McGoey KE, Eckert TL, VanBrakle J (2001) Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40(5):508–515
Johnston C, Mash EJ (2001) Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review and recommendations for future research. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 4(3):183–207
Deault LC (2010) A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 41(2):168–192
Johnston C, Jassy JS (2007) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional/conduct problems: Links to parent-child interactions. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 16(2):74
Modesto-Lowe V, Danforth JS, Brooks D (2008) ADHD: does parenting style matter? Clin Pediatr (Phila) 47:865–872
Park JL, Hudec KL, Johnston C (2017) Parental ADHD symptoms and parenting behaviors: a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 56:25–39
Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R et al (2006) The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 163(4):716–723
Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K (2002) The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 111(2):279
Sibley MH, Pelham WE, Molina BS et al (2012) When diagnosing ADHD in young adults emphasize informant reports, DSM items, and impairment. J Consult Clin Psychol 80(6):1052–1061
Sibley MH, Swanson JM, Arnold LE et al (2016) Defining ADHD symptom persistence in adulthood: optimizing sensitivity and specificity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 58:655–662
Zaslow MJ, Weinfield NS, Gallagher M et al (2006) Longitudinal prediction of child outcomes from differing measures of parenting in a low-income sample. Dev Psychol 42(1):27
Lui JH, Johnston C, Lee CM, Lee-Flynn SC (2013) Parental ADHD symptoms and self-reports of positive parenting. J Consult Clin Psychol 81(6):988
Molina BS, Pelham WE, Cheong J, Marshal MP, Gnagy EM, Curran PJ (2012) Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and growth in adolescent alcohol use: the roles of functional impairments, ADHD symptom persistence, and parental knowledge. J Abnorm Psychol 121(4):922–935
Molina BSG, Sibley MH, Pedersen SL, Pelham WE (2016) The Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study. In: Hechtman L (ed) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Adult outcomes and its predictors. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 105–155
Kuriyan AB, Pelham WE, Molina BS et al (2013) Young adult educational and vocational outcomes of children diagnosed with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41(1):27–41
Pelham WE, Gnagy B, Greiner A, Hoza B, Sams S, Martin L, Wilson T (1996) Intensive treatment: a summer treatment program for children with ADHD. In: Model programs for service delivery for child and family mental health. pp 193–213
American psychiatric association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental health disorders (DSM-III-R). American Psychiatric Association, Washington
American Psychiatric Association (2000) DSM-IV-TR: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder, test revision, vol 75. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, pp 78–85
Kuriyan AB, Pelham WE Jr, Molina BS et al (2013) Young adult educational and vocational outcomes of children diagnosed with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 41(1):27–41
Wakschlag LS, Hill C, Carter AS et al (2008) Observational assessment of preschool disruptive behavior, Part I: reliability of the disruptive behavior diagnostic observation schedule (DB-DOS). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(6):622–631
Pelham WE, Gnagy EM, Greenslade KE, Milich R (1992) Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31(2):210–218
Fabiano GA, Pelham J, William E, Waschbusch DA et al (2006) A practical measure of impairment: psychometric properties of the impairment rating scale in samples of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and two school-based samples. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 35(3):369–385
Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D et al (1997) Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36(7):980–988
American Psychiatric Pub (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). American Psychiatric Pub, Washington
Wakschlag LS, Briggs-Gowan MJ, Hill C et al (2008) Observational assessment of preschool disruptive behavior, Part II: validity of the disruptive behavior diagnostic observation schedule (DB-DOS). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(6):632–641
Gibaud-Wallston J, Wandersmann LP (1978) Development and utility of the parenting sense of competence scale. John F. Kennedy center for research on education and human development, Nashville
Johnston C, Mash EJ (1989) A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. J Clin Child Psychol 18(2):167–175
Fabes R, Eisenberg N, Bernzweig J (1990) Coping with children’s negative emotions scale (CCNES): description and scoring. Arizona State University, Tempe
McElwain NL, Halberstadt AG, Volling BL (2007) Mother-and father-reported reactions to children’s negative emotions: relations to young children’s emotional understanding and friendship quality. Child Dev 78(5):1407–1425
Suveg C, Shaffer A, Morelen D, Thomassin K (2011) Links between maternal and child psychopathology symptoms: mediation through child emotion regulation and moderation through maternal behavior. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 42(5):507
Hill C, Maskowitz K, Danis B, Wakschlag L (2008) Validation of a clinically sensitive, observational coding system for parenting behaviors: the parenting clinical observation schedule. Parenting 8(2):153–185
Nock MK, Kazdin AE, Hiripi E, Kessler RC (2007) Lifetime prevalence, correlates, and persistence of oppositional defiant disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48(7):703–713
Nadder TS, Rutter M, Silberg J, Maes H, Eaves L (2002) Genetic effects on the variation and covariation of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional-defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) symptomatologies across informant and occasion of measurement. Psychol Med 32(1):39–53
Harvey EA, Breaux RP, Lugo-Candelas CI (2016) Early development of comorbidity between symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). J Abnorm Psychol 125(2):154
Williams KE, Berthelsen D (2017) The development of prosocial behaviour in early childhood: Contributions of early parenting and self-regulation. Int J Early Child 49(1):73–94
Harvey EA, Lugo-Candelas CI, Breaux RP (2015) Longitudinal changes in individual symptoms across the preschool years in children with ADHD. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 44(4):580–594
Evans SW, Owens JS, Bunford N (2014) Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 43(4):527–551
Webster-Stratton CH, Reid MJ, Beauchaine T (2011) Combining parent and child training for young children with ADHD. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 40(2):191–203
Fabiano GA (2007) Father participation in behavioral parent training for ADHD: review and recommendations for increasing inclusion and engagement. J Fam Psychol 21(4):683–693
Fabiano GA, Chacko A, Pelham WE et al (2009) A comparison of behavioral parent training programs for fathers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behav Ther 40(2):190–204
Owens JS, Goldfine ME, Evangelista NM, Hoza B, Kaiser NM (2007) A critical review of self-perceptions and the positive illusory bias in children with ADHD. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 10(4):335–351
Parke RD, Buriel R (1998) Socialization in the family: ethnic and ecological perspectives. In: Eisenberg N, Damon W (eds) Handbook of child psychology. Wiley, Hoboken
Wymbs BT, Pelham WE Jr, Molina BS, Gnagy EM, Wilson TK, Greenhouse JB (2008) Rate and predictors of divorce among parents of youths with ADHD. J Consult Clin Psychol 76(5):735
Sandra Kooij J, Marije Boonstra A, Swinkels S, Bekker EM, de Noord I, Buitelaar JK (2008) Reliability, validity, and utility of instruments for self-report and informant report concerning symptoms of ADHD in adult patients. J Atten Disord 11(4):445–458
Acknowledgements
This research was principally supported by grants from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and MH018951. Additional support was provided by AA011873 and DA12414. We would like to thank Dr. Lauren Wakschlag for allowing us to use the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS) and Parenting Coding Observation Scale (PCOS). We would also like to thank her team including Dr. Erica Anderson for training in the administration of the DB-DOS and Kristina Butler, Stephanie Kauffman, and Nora Plumb for their service in behavior coding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Joseph, H.M., Kennedy, T.M., Gnagy, E.M. et al. Fathers with Childhood ADHD, Parenting, and Their Young Children’s Behavior: Offspring of the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS). Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 50, 35–44 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0819-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0819-3