Abstract
Over the pre-Columbian sequence, Andean warfare ranged greatly in intensity. This review combines published information on cranial trauma and settlement patterns, which often align and clarify each other, to make an initial assessment of how severely Andean populations were affected by war over time and space. The data speak to a number of major topics in the archaeology of warfare, such as the origin of war, contrasts in state militarism, and changes in the practice of war related to social organization. Although there is considerable regional variation, two large-scale “waves” of escalated conflict that are clearly supported by the cranial trauma and settlement pattern data occurred in the Final Formative (late Early Horizon, 400 BC–AD 100) and the Late Intermediate period (AD 1000–1400).
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Acknowledgments
The authors thank the numerous scholars who gave permission to cite conference papers and articles in preparation, and provided clarification or more detailed data, including Valerie Andrushko, Robert Benfer, Kevin Darcy, Julie Farnum, Catherine Gaither, Danielle Kurin, Ken Nystrom, Elsa Tomasto, Marla Toyne, and John Verano. Much of the initial research was completed while one of us (Arkush) was generously supported by a Wenner-Gren Hunt postdoctoral fellowship and a Dumbarton Oaks residential fellowship. We also thank Gary Feinman for encouraging us to write this article and the reviewers for helpful comments. All errors and misrepresentations are our own.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Frequencies of adult cranial trauma among Andean skeletal populations (ante- and perimortem trauma were collapsed if both were reported)
Period | Date | Region | Site(s) | Culture | Affected | Observed | % | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ARC | 7500–7200 BC | N Chile coast | Acha-3 | 1 | 4 | 25.0 | Standen and Santoro (2004) | |
ARC | 8340–6220 BC | Paracas, S Peru coast | Santo Domingo Pampa | 0 | 2 | 0.0 | Beynon and Siegel (1981) | |
ARC | 5400–5000 BC | Chilca, central Peru coast | Paloma | 0 | 69 | 0.0 | ||
ARC | 5000–4540 BC | Far NE Chile | Patapatane | 0 | 1 | 0.0 | Santoro et al. (2005) | |
ARC | 4400–3100 BC | Cuzco, central Peru | Kasapata | 0 | 3 | 0.0 | Sutter and Cortez (2007) | |
ARC | 3800–1500 BC | Rio Grande Valley, Nasca, S Peru coast | Pernil Alto | 1 | 2 | 50.0 | Tomasto (2009) | |
ARC | 3400–1500 BC | St Elena Peninsula, Ecuador | Real Alto | 4 | 27 | 14.8 | Ubelaker (2003) | |
ARC | 3800–2000 BC | N Chile coast | Caleta Huelen 42 | Chinchorro-related? | 1 | 27 | 3.7 | Cocilovo et al. (2005) |
ARC | 3200–1250 BC | N Chile coast | Morro de Arica de Uhle | Chinchorro | 19 | 88 | 21.6 | Costa et al. (2000) |
ARC | 2600–1800 BC | N Chile coast | Morro 1, Morro 1/6, Maderas Enco, Playa Miller 8 | Chinchorro | 16 | 66 | 24.2 | Standen and Arriaza (2000) |
ARC | 2400–1900 BC | N Chile coast | Tiviliche-2 | Chinchorro-related? | 0 | 13 | 0.0 | Standen and Nuñez (1984) |
ARC | 2500–1700 BC | Santa drainage, Huanuco, N Peru | La Galgada | Kotosh | 0 | 12 | 0.0 | |
Archaic total | 42 | 311 | 13.5 | |||||
F | 1000–800 BC | Azapa, N Chile | Azapa | Azapa | 2 | 25 | 8.0 | Fouant (1984) |
F | 1500 BC–AD 100 | Titicaca basin, Bolivia | Chiripa | Chiripa | 0 | 10 | 0.0 | Blom and Bandy (1999) |
F | 1200–500 BC | Jequetepeque, N Peru coast | Puemape | Early Cupisnique | 0 | 17 | 0.0 | Gillespie (1998) |
Formative total | 2 | 52 | 3.8 | |||||
FF | 400 BC–AD 100 | Rio Grande, S Peru coast | Juaranga (and other sites) | Paracas | 5 | 20 | 25.0 | Tomasto (2009, personal communication, 2010) |
FF | 400 BC–AD 100 | Moche Valley, N Peru coast | Cerro Oreja | Salinar | 5 | 15 | 33.3 | Lambert (2011) |
FF | 400 BC–AD 100 | Jequetepeque, N Peru coast | Puemape | Salinar | 1 | 18 | 5.6 | Gillespie (1998) |
FF/EIP | 100 BC–100 AD | Lower Lurin, central Peru coast | Villa El Salvador XII | 9 | 61 | 14.8 | Pechenkina and Delgado (2006) | |
Final Formative total | 20 | 114 | 17.5 | |||||
EIP | AD 1–200 | Moche Valley, N Peru coast | Cerro Oreja | Gallinazo, Early Moche | 14 | 73 | 19.2 | Lambert (2011) |
EIP | ~AD 290 | Chiclayo, N Peru coast | Sipan Tomb 1 (Lord of Sipan) | Moche | 0 | 9 | 0.0 | Verano (1997) |
EIP | AD 1–600 | Chicama Valley, N Peru coast | El Brujo | Moche | 11 | 30 | 36.6 | Philips (2009) |
EIP | AD 300–450 | Santa Valley, N coast Peru | El Castillo | Moche | 3 | 6 | 50 | Philips (2009) |
EIP | ~AD 500 | Jequetepeque, N coast Peru | Pacatnamu | Moche | 4 | 30 | 13.3 | Philips (2009) |
EIP | AD 1–750 | Las Trancas Valley, S Peru coast | El Pampon, La Marcha, Los Medanos | Nasca | 7 | 81 | 8.6 | Kellner (2002) |
EIP | AD 100–750 | Palpa, S Peru coast | Nasca-Palpa sites | Nasca | 1 | 19 | 5.3 | Tomasto (2009, personal communication, 2010) |
EIP | AD 1–700 | Nasca & Taruga Valley, S Peru coast | Nasca & Taruga Valley sites | Nasca | 1 | 19 | 5.3 | Tung and Schreiber (2010) |
EIP | AD 100–500 | Ayacucho, central Peru | Conchopata | Huarpa | 1 | 11 | 9.1 | Tung (2007b) |
EIP | 200 BC–AD 600 | Atacama, Chile | Toconao Oriente | Tiwanaku-affiliated? | 5 | 99 | 5.1 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
Early Intermediate period total | 47 | 377 | 12.5 | |||||
MH | AD 650–800 | Majes Valley, S Peru | Beringa | Wari-affiliated | 13 | 39 | 33.3 | Tung (2007b) |
MH | AD 650–1000 | Majes Valley, S Peru | La Real | Wari-affiliated | 32 | 104 | 30.8 | Tung (2007b) |
MH | AD 750–900 | Las Trancas Valley, S Peru coast | El Pampon, La Marcha, Los Medanos | Nasca-Loro (Burials w/ local ceramics) | 5 | 81 | 6.2 | Kellner (2002) |
MH | AD 750–900 | Las Trancas Valley, S Peru coast | El Pampon, La Marcha, Los Medanos | Nasca-Chakipampa (Burials w/ Wari goods) | 4 | 17 | 23.5 | Kellner (2002) |
MH | AD 750–1000 | Palpa, S Peru coast | Nasca-Palpa sites | Nasca MH | 0 | 7 | 0.0 | Tomasto (2009) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Ayacucho, central Peru | Huari-Cheqo Wasi | Wari | 10 | 24 | 41.7 | Tung (2013) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Ayacucho, central Peru | Conchopata | Wari | 10 | 49 | 20.4 | Tung (2012) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Ayacucho, central Peru | Nawinpukio | Wari | 0 | 3 | 0.0 | Tung (2013) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Ayacucho, central Peru | Trigo Pampa | Wari | 0 | 2 | 0.0 | Tung (2013) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Cuzco, central Peru | Qotakalli, Ak’awillay, Choquepukio, Cotocotuyoc | Wari and Cuzco | 3 | 36 | 8.3 | Andrushko and Torres (2011) |
MH | AD 650–900 | Cuzco, central Peru | Pikkillacta | Wari | 1 | 2 | 50.0 | Verano (2005) |
MH | AD 600–950 | Atacama, Chile | Solcor 3 | Tiwanaku-affiliated? | 10 | 92 | 10.9 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
MH | AD 600–1000 | Andahuaylas, central Peru | Turpo | Qasawirka and Wari-affiliated | 2 | 22 | 9.1 | Kurin (2012) |
MH | AD 400–1000 | Titicaca basin, Bolivia | Chiripa | Tiwanaku | 0 | 5 | 0.0 | Blom and Bandy (1999) |
MH | AD 692–962 | Uyuni salt flats, Bolivia | Juch’uypampa Cave | Tiwanaku-affiliated | 1 | 3 | 33.3 | Tung (personal communication, 2011) |
MH | AD 500–1000 | Azapa | Maitas, Cabuza | Tiwanaku-affiliated? | 16 | 89 | 18.0 | Fouant (1984) |
Middle Horizon total | 107 | 575 | 20 | |||||
MH/LIP | AD 900–1100 | La Leche, N Peru coast | Sicán capital | Sicán (Lambayeque) | 1 | 32 | 3.1 | |
MH/LIP | AD 900–1100 | Chicama, N Peru coast | El Brujo | Sicán (Lambayeque) | 2 | 27 | 7.4 | |
MH/LIP | AD 850–1200 | Atacama, Chile | Coyo 3 | Tiwanaku-affiliated? | 16 | 44 | 36.4 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
Middle Horizon/Late Intermediate period transition | 19 | 103 | 18.4 | |||||
LIP | AD 1000–1400 | Cuzco, central Peru | Various LIP sites in/near Cuzco | pre-Inka | 47 | 199 | 23.6 | Andrushko and Torres (2011) |
LIP | AD 950–1400 | Atacama, Chile | Yaye, Quitor 6 | Atacama | 46 | 151 | 30.5 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
LIP | AD 1300–1400 | Atacama, Chile | Catarpe 4-5 | Atacama | 3 | 36 | 8.3 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
LIP | AD 1350–1470 | Chachapoya, N Peru | Kuélap, Revash temporal group of Reichlen collection | Chachapoya | 13 | 78 | 16.7 | Nystrom and Verano (2003) |
LIP | AD 1000–1150 | Chachapoya, Dept. of San Martin, Peru | Laguna Huayabamba (Vira Vira) | Chachapoya | 2 | 25 | 8.0 | Nystrom (2004) |
LIP | AD 1100–1470 | Andahuaylas, central Peru | Cachi, Ranracancha, Pucullu, Qasiachi | Chanka | 117 | 222 | 52.7 | Kurin (2012) |
LIP | AD 1200–1500 | Chachapoya, N Peru | Luya sites, Dept. of Amazona, Peru | Chachapoya | 13 | 27 | 48.1 | Darcy et al. (2010) |
LIP | AD 1100–1470 | N Chile coast | Azapa (RDP) | Regional | 3 | 13 | 23.1 | Fouant (1984) |
LIP | AD 1100–1450 | Titicaca Basin, S Peru | Molino-Chilacachi | Lupaqa | 7 | 48 | 14.6 | de la Vega et al. (2005) |
Late Intermediate period total | 251 | 799 | 31.4 | |||||
LIP/LH | AD 1100–1532 | Upper Chillon watershed, central Peru | San Damian (Hrdlicka collection) | 50 | 121 | 41.3 | Verano (2002) | |
LIP/LH | AD 1100–1532 | Upper Chillon watershed, central Peru | Cinco Cerros (Hrdlicka collection) | 16 | 34 | 47.1 | Verano (2002) | |
LIP/LH | AD 1100–1532 | Upper Chillon watershed, central Peru | Matucana (Hrdlicka collection) | 9 | 20 | 45.0 | Verano (2002) | |
LIP/LH | AD 900–1532 | Chuquibamba, N Peru | Combined Chuquibamba sites | Chachapoya | 31 | 137 | 22.6 | Jakobsen et al. (1986) |
LIP/LH | AD 1000–1532 | Cuzco, central Peru | Urubamba sites | Pre-Inka, Inka | 37 | 225 | 16.4 | MacCurdy (1923) |
LIP/LH | AD 1000–1532 | Colca Valley, southern Peru | Malata | Collagua/ Inka | 9 | 18 | 50.0 | Tung et al. (2008) |
Late Intermediate Period/Late Horizon Total | 152 | 555 | 27.4 | |||||
LH | AD 1400–1532 | Lima, central Peru coast | 2 sites at Puruchuco-Huaquerones: Puruchuco, 57AS03 | Local Lima / Inka | 22 | 148 | 14.9 | Murphy et al. (2010) |
LH | AD 1400–1532 | Atacama, Chile | Catarpe 1-2 | Atacama | 8 | 208 | 3.8 | Torres-Rouff and Costa (2006) |
LH | AD 1400–1485 | Chachapoyas, N Peru | Chachapoya sites | Chachapoya | 5 | 23 | 21.7 | Jakobsen et al. (1986, pp. 156, 164, 178) |
LH | AD 1400–1532 | Cuzco, Peru | Various Inka sites | Inka | 50 | 219 | 22.8 | Andrushko and Torres (2011) |
Late Horizon total | 80 | 598 | 13.4 | |||||
Total of all samples | 706 | 3448 | 20.48 | |||||
Appendix B
Defensive and nondefensive settlement patterns over time
Archaic | |
North coast | Nondefensive, aside from Salinas de Chao (Alva 1986) and possibly Ostra (Topic 1989) |
Central coast | Nondefensive |
South coast | Nondefensive where known |
Far south coast | Nondefensive |
Central highlands | Nondefensive where known |
South highlands | Nondefensive where known |
Formative up to 500 BC | |
North coast | Nondefensive (e.g., Billman 1999; Proulx 1985). Possible small fortifications in Jequetepeque (Dillehay 2008) upper Casma and Sechin Valleys (Wilson 1995), and Culebras (Giersz and Przadka 2009). One site in Chao protected by stone walls linking incised gullies (Cárdenas 1998, site 157–158). Potentially defensible settlement on hill spurs in middle Fortaleza Valley (Vega-Centeno et al. 1998) |
Central coast | Some hilltop settlement (Silva 1998) and possibly some early hillforts (Brown Vega et al. 2013) |
South coast | Nondefensive |
Far south coast | Nondefensive |
North highlands | Generally nondefensive. A few hilltop settlements with walls and/or ditches, e.g., Cerro Huachac (Topic 2009) and Cerro Pelón (Pérez 1998; Zaki 1983). Some small ridgetop sites in the Mosna drainage (Burger 1983) |
Central highlands | Nondefensive where known |
South highlands | Nondefensive |
Final Formative | |
North coast | Many large hillforts in Santa, Casma, Nepeña, and Virú Valleys (Brown Vega 2010; Daggett 1984; Proulx 1985; Przadka and Giersz 2003; Willey 1953; Wilson 1988, 1995). Settlements in Moche and Chicama are defensible and sometimes fortified (Attarian 2009; Billman 1996; Russell 1992). Some large hillforts to the south, especially in Huaura (Brown Vega 2010) |
Central coast | In the Lurin Valley, small dispersed ridgetop settlements, sometimes fortified (Earle 1972). Nucleated, potentially defensible settlements in middle Chincha (Canziani 1992, 2009) |
South coast | Nucleated hilltop sites and hillforts in the lower Ica Valley and the Palpa area (DeLeonardis 1991; Paul 2000, p.75, n 17; Reindel 2009; Reindel and Isla 2006, pp. 246–247). Small hilltop settlements, sometimes with slingstones, in the southern Nazca drainage (Schreiber and Lancho 2003, p.14; van Gijseghem and Vaughn 2008). Nucleated fortified settlements and buffer zones in the Acari Valley (Valdez 2009) |
North highlands | Hilltop settlement, sometimes fortified, in Cajamarca after c. 250 BC (Julien 1988; Seki 1998). Significant fortification and defensible settlement in uppermost Chicama, Moche, and Virú Valleys and adjacent highlands (Pérez 1998; Topic and Topic 1978). Hilltop settlement in Huamachuco, sometimes with walls (Topic 2009; Topic and Topic 1978). Some large hilltop sites in Ancash, at least one fortified (Ponte 2000; Topic and Topic 1982). Nondefensive settlement east toward the Marañon (Herrera 2003; Ibarra 2003) |
Central highlands | Around Cuzco, many hilltop/ridgetop settlements (Bauer 2004; Zapata 1998) |
South highlands | Nondefensive except for some large hilltop settlements in the Titicaca Basin (Arkush 2008) and Chiripa settlements in the Tiwanaku Valley on defensible hills between incised gullies (Albarracin-Jordan and Matthews 1992, pp. 71–72). Nondefensive in the Bolivian altiplano and Cochabamba Valley (Lecoq and Céspedes 1997; McAndrews 2005) |
Early Intermediate period | |
North coast | Hilltop settlement in early EIP (Gallinazo) in the Moche Valley; less defensive in later EIP, with some strategic forts in the middle/upper Chicama and Moche Valleys (Billman 1999; Topic and Topic 1978). Nondefensive settlement in Virú protected by strategic hillforts (Willey 1953). In Santa, Nepeña, and Casma, nondefensive Moche sites in lower valleys and strongly defensive Recuay-affiliated sites in middle and upper valleys (Chapdelaine et al. 2009; Proulx 1985; Wilson 1988, 1995) |
Central coast | Largely nondefensive (Canziani 1992; Paredes 2000; Silva 1996), with some hilltop settlement in the later EIP (Earle 1972) |
South coast | Nondefensive in Nasca and Palpa, with increasing nucleation over time (Reindel 2009; Schreiber and Lancho 2003; Silverman and Proulx 2002). In Acarí, transition about AD 350 from defensive sites to smaller unwalled settlements (Valdez 2009). Nondefensive in Moquegua (Goldstein 2005, p. 123) |
North highlands | In Cajamarca, early EIP defensible hilltop settlement shifting to valley floors in late EIP (Julien 1988). In Huamachuco, competing early EIP centers with walls and ditches shift to less defensive settlement dominated by Marcahuamachuco (Topic 2009). In Ancash, many hilltop and fortified sites |
Central highlands | Near Junín, several late EIP/MH walled sites (Parsons et al. 2000). Clustered but unfortified Huarpa sites in the Ayacucho Valley (Isbell 1985, p. 90). Nondefensive in Andahuaylas and Cuzco (Bauer 2004; Bauer et al. 2010) |
South highlands | Some possible defensive settlement in the early EIP in the northern Titicaca Basin; nondefensive in the southern Titicaca Basin (Janusek and Kolata 2003; Matthews 2003) |
Far south highlands | Nondefensive (Lecoq 1997, 2001; Nielsen 2001b); layout of nucleated villages at San Pedro de Atacama is somewhat defensible (Llagostera and Costa 1999) |
Middle Horizon (where known) | |
North coast | Defensive settlement patterns in the middle and upper Moche, Jequetepeque, and Zaña Valleys; after about AD 800, dispersal into small hillside fortified hamlets (Dillehay 2001; Dillehay et al. 2009; Topic 1991; Topic and Topic 1987). Less defensive to south, except for defensible and sometimes fortified settlements in Nepeña (Proulx 1985) |
Central coast | Largely nondefensive (e.g., Silva 1996), but some hillforts in Huaura (Brown Vega et al. 2013) |
South coast | Partial abandonment (Conlee 2006; Reindel 2009; Schreiber 2001) |
Far south coast | Mostly nondefensive in Moquegua with some fortified outposts (see text) |
North highlands | Hilltop settlement continues in Huamachuco (Topic 2009; Topic and Topic 1978, 1987); nondefensive in Cajamarca (Julien 1988) |
Central highlands | Some hilltop location and possible fortification at Wari satellites in Ayacucho (Pérez 1999); nondefensive Cuzco area settlement except for Pikillacta (Bauer 2004) |
South highlands | Mostly nondefensive, with a few fortified sites in Arequipa (Cardona 2002; Doutriaux 2004; Jennings 2002; Stanish et al. 1997; Wernke 2003) |
Far south highlands | Mostly nondefensive (Higueras 1996; Lecoq and Céspedes 1997) |
Late Intermediate period | |
North coast | Mostly nondefensive, with some defenses in middle valleys (Proulx 1973; Willey 1953; Wilson 1988). Denser fortifications in the Culebras and Casma Valleys (Brown Vega 2010; Przadka and Giersz 2003; Wilson 1995) |
Central coast | Relatively nondefensive settlement in lower valleys under powerful regional polities (Canziani 1992, 2009; Feltham 1984). In Chillón, most sites have defensive locations and walls (Silva 1996) |
South coast | Late LIP Nasca area settlements use defensive hilltops and occasionally fortifications (e.g., Conlee 2006; Reindel 2009) |
Far south coast | Highly defensive walled sites in middle and upper Moquegua especially after AD 1200 (Moseley 1989; Owen 1995; Stanish 1992) |
North highlands | Hilltop settlement common in Cajamarca (Julien 1988; Toohey 2009), Chachapoyas (Schjellerup 1992, 1997), and Huamachuco (Pineda 1989; Topic 2009), sometimes with fortifications. Defensive wall systems and strategic forts in the upper Jequetepeque, Chicama, and Moche watersheds (e.g., Krzanowski 1977; Topic and Topic 1979a, b, 1987). Fortified hilltop sites in the Callejón de Huaylas and the upper Marañon (Herrera 2003; Mantha 2009; Ponte 2000) |
Central highlands | In the Upper Mantaro, early LIP ridgetop settlements shift to nucleated, fortified hilltop centers after AD 1300 (Earle et al. 1980; Hastorf et al. 1989). Nearly all settlement on ridgetops and fortified in Tarma near Junín, in Asto territory to the south, and in the upper Chillón drainage (Farfán 1995; Lavallee and Julien 1973; Parsons et al. 2000, p. 160). In southern Ayacucho and Andahuaylas, nucleated ridgetop sites, sometimes fortified (Kellett 2010; Meddens 1984, 1999; Pérez 1999; Schreiber 1993, p. 82; Valdez and Vivanco 1994; Valdez et al. 1990). Less defensive closer to Cuzco, with small, unfortified ridgetop sites (Covey 2003; Dean 2005; Heffernan 1996; Kosiba 2010; Lee 2000; Sillar and Dean 2002), and nondefensive settlements in the Cuzco, Paruro, and Lucre Valleys (Bauer 1992, 2004) |
South highlands | In the Titicaca Basin, nucleated walled hilltop centers with smaller unfortified sites nearby (Arkush 2011; Frye and de la Vega 2005; Hyslop 1976; Neira 1967; Stanish 2003; Stanish et al. 1997). Dense, fortified, hilltop refuges in the upper Colca Valley (Wernke 2006). In the southeastern Titicaca Basin and the Bolivian altiplano, nondefensive dispersed settlement with few small refuge hillforts (Albarracin-Jordan 1990; Bandy 2001; Janusek and Kolata 2003; McAndrews 2005; Pärssinen 2005) |
Far south highlands | Near Potosí and on the eastern slopes, defensive hilltop settlements, sometimes walled (Alconini 2004; Higueras 1996; Lecoq and Céspedes 1997). In far southern Bolivia, north Chile, and northwest Argentina, small, low-lying settlements with a few larger, fortified villages (Chacama 2005; DeMarrais 2001; Llagostera and Costa 1999; Nielsen 2001a, 2002; Nuñez and Dillehay 1978, pp. 111–112; Ruiz and Albeck 1997; Santoro et al. 2004; Schiappacasse et al. 1989) |
Late Horizon | |
North coast | Continuation of nondefensive patterns established by the late LIP in Virú, Santa, Nepeña, and Casma (Proulx 1973; Willey 1953; Wilson 1988, 1995) |
Central coast | Shift to nondefensive settlements in the Chillón and upper Lurin Valleys (Feltham 1984; Silva 1996) |
Far south coast | Hillforts in Moquegua abandoned for nondefensive valley-floor sites (Stanish 1992) |
North highlands | Inka centers founded in nondefensive locations on the Inka road, e.g., Cajamarca, Huamachuco, Huanuco Pampa. Local settlement patterns unclear but may continue from LIP; abandonment of some defensive sites in Chachapoyas (Schjellerup 1997, p. 241) and of the Yanaorco hillfort in Cajamarca (Toohey 2009) |
Central highlands | Shift to unfortified sites and less defensive locations in the Junín region, Upper Mantaro Valley, Ayacucho, and Andahuaylas (Bauer et al. 2010; D’Altroy 1992, pp. 189–193; Parsons et al. 2000; Schreiber 1993; Valdez and Vivanco 1994). Cuzco settlement patterns change little from LIP |
South highlands | Arequipa patterns change little aside from new Inka centers (Doutriaux 2004; Jennings 2002; Sciscento 1990; Wernke 2006). In Titicaca Basin, major resettlement from hillforts to nondefensive sites (Stanish et al. 1997) |
Far south highlands | In Potosi, shift to less defensive locations (Lecoq and Céspedes 1997). In northern Chile and northwest Argentina, most fortified settlements abandoned for lower villages; some Inka fortresses (intrusive or reused native forts; D’Altroy et al. 2007) |
Appendix C
Codes for settlement patterns by region and period
Archaic | Form | F Form | EIP | MH | LIP | LH | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Highlands | D | F | S | D | F | S | D | F | S | D | F | S | D | F | S | D | F | S | D | F | S |
Cajamarca | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
Chachapoyas | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||||||||||||||||
Huamachuco - Alto Chicama | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Ancash - Huanuco | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0? | 0? | 0 | |||||||
Junin - Upper Mantaro | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||||
Ayacucho - Andahuaylas | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
Cuzco area | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Arequipa | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | ||||||
Titicaca basin - N Bolivia | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
S Bolivian highlands | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
NW Argentina | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Chilean sierra | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |||
Coast | |||||||||||||||||||||
Lambayeque | 0 | 0 | 1 | ||||||||||||||||||
Jequetepeque | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1? | 0 | 0? | 1? | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | |||
Moche - Chicama | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
Virü - Chao | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1? | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Santa | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1? | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Nepena | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1? | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Casma - Culebras | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1? | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0? | 0? | 0? |
Norte Chico | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |||||||||
Chillon to Chincha | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Ica, Nasca, Acari | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | |||
Moquegua | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||||||
N Chilean coast | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |||||||||
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Arkush, E., Tung, T.A. Patterns of War in the Andes from the Archaic to the Late Horizon: Insights from Settlement Patterns and Cranial Trauma. J Archaeol Res 21, 307–369 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-013-9065-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-013-9065-1