Abstract
Wearing costumes is a common experience during early childhood and is often important to sociodramatic play. Costumes tend to be highly gendered for both girls and boys (such as princess and superhero costumes). However, there is very little research on the impact that wearing costumes has on gender-differentiated behavior, such as toy preference, prosocial behavior, or perseverance during early childhood. The current study included 223 U.S. children, aged between 3 and 5 years-old. Children were assigned to wear either a gendered, counter-gendered, or gender-neutral costume, and they then took part in three gender-related tasks. There was no impact of wearing costumes on any task for girls. However, boys preferred feminine toys significantly more when wearing a neutral costume when compared to a masculine-typed one. Additionally, boys were significantly less likely to help when wearing a masculine-typed costume compared to a feminine-typed costume. There are several implications of these findings that are discussed in the paper. Parents may wish to purchase a wide range of costumes for their child for sociodramatic play, particularly for boys. Therapists could also potentially use costumes during play therapy to discuss gender issues. Additionally, costume producers could consider marketing a wide range of costumes for children as opposed to largely focusing on gendered ones.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker, K., & Raney, A. A. (2007). Equally super? Gender-role stereotyping of superheroes in children’s animated programs. Mass Communication & Society, 10, 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205430709337003.
Bigler, R. S., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00496.x.
Blakemore, J. E. O., & Centers, R. E. (2005). Characteristics of boys' and girls' toys. Sex Roles, 53(9–10), 619–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7729-0.
Buckingham, C., Stockdale, C., & Harrington, J. (2018, October 19). Halloween spending: U.S. cities that invest heavily in haunted holiday. USA Today. https://eu.usatoday.com/story/money/retail/2018/10/19/25-cities-spending-most-halloween/38167911/
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.676.
Chen, X., Tian, L., & Huebner, E. S. (2020). Bidirectional relations between subjective well-being in school and prosocial behavior among elementary school-aged children: A longitudinal study. Child & Youth Care Forum, 49(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-019-09518-4.
Cowan, G., & Hoffman, C. D. (1986). Gender stereotyping in young children: Evidence to support a concept-learning approach. Sex Roles, 14, 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00288250.
Coyne, S. M., & Smith, N. J. (2014). Sweetness on the screen: A multi-dimensional view of prosocial behavior in media. In L. M. Padilla-Walker & G. Carlo (Eds.), Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (pp. 156–177). New York: Oxford University Press.
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E. E., Nelson, D. A., & Collier, K. M. (2014). It’s a bird! It’s a plane! It’s a gender stereotype!: Longitudinal associations between superhero viewing and gender stereotyped play. Sex Roles, 70, 416–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0374-8.
Coyne, S. M., Linder, J. R., Rasmussen, E. E., Nelson, D. A., & Birkbeck, V. (2016). Pretty as a princess: Longitudinal effects of engagement with Disney princesses on gender stereotypes, body esteem, and prosocial behavior in children. Child Development, 87, 1909–1925. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12569.
Coyne, S. M., Stockdale, L., Linder, J. R., Nelson, D. A., Collier, K. M., & Essig, L. W. (2017). Pow! Boom! Kablam! Effects of viewing superhero programs on aggressive, prosocial, and defending behaviors in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1523–1535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0253-6.
Davis, J. T., & Hines, M. (2020). How large are gender differences in toy preferences? A systematic review and meta-analysis of toy preference research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(2), 373–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01624-7.
Dinella, L. M. (2013). Internalization of princess culture: A cross-sectional study of early childhood and emerging adulthood [paper presentation]. Society for Research on child development biannual conference, Seattle.
Dinella, L. M. (2017). Halloween costume choices: Reflections of gender development in early childhood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 178, 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2017.1295223.
Dinella, L. M., & Weisgram, E. S. (2018). Gender-typing of children’s toys: Causes, consequences, and correlates. Sex Roles, 79, 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0943-3.
Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 275–298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719.
England, D. E., Descartes, L., & Collier-Meek, M. A. (2011). Gender role portrayal and the Disney princesses. Sex Roles, 64, 555–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9930-7.
Ginsburg, K. R. (2007). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics, 119, 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-2697.
Golden, J. C., & Jacoby, J. W. (2018). Playing princess: Preschool girls’ interpretations of gender stereotypes in Disney princess media. Sex Roles, 79(5–6), 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0773-8.
Goudreau, J. (2012, September 20). Disney princess tops list of the 20 best-selling entertainment products. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennagoudreau/2012/09/17/disney-princess-tops-list-of-the-20-best-selling-entertainment-products/#12a1c1e3ab06+
Halim, M. L., Ruble, D., Tamis-LeMonda, C., & Shrout, P. E. (2013). Rigidity in gender-typed behaviors in early childhood: A longitudinal study of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 84, 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12057.
Halim, M. L., Ruble, D. N., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Zosuls, K. M., Lurye, L. E., & Greulich, F. K. (2014). Pink frilly dresses and the avoidance of all things “girly”: Children’s appearance rigidity and cognitive theories of gender development. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1091–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034906.
Halim, M. L. D., Gutierrez, B. C., Bryant, D. N., Arredondo, M., & Takesako, K. (2018). Gender is what you look like: Emerging gender identities in young children and preoccupation with appearance. Self and Identity, 17, 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1412344.
Harris, K. I. (2016). Heroes of resiliency and reciprocity: Teachers’ supporting role for reconceptualizing superhero play in early childhood settings. Pastoral Care in Education, 34, 202–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2016.1154093.
Hastings, P. D., Rubin, K. H., & DeRose, L. (2005). Links among gender, inhibition, and parental socialization in the development of prosocial behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51, 467–493. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2005.0023.
Hastings, P. D., McShane, K. E., Parker, R., & Ladha, F. (2007). Ready to make nice: Parental socialization of young sons’ and daughters’ prosocial behaviors with peers. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 168(2), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.3200/GNTP.168.2.177-200.
Hine, B., England, D., Lopreore, K., Horgan, E. S., & Hartwell, L. (2018). The rise of the androgynous princess: Examining representations of gender in prince and princess characters of Disney movies released 2009-2016. Social Sciences, 7, 245–268. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci7120245.
Kiefer, A., & Shih, M. (2006). Gender differences in persistence and attributions in stereotype relevant contexts. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 54(11–12), 859–868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9051-x.
King, R. A., Scott, K. E., Renno, M. P., & Shutts, K. (2020). Counterstereotyping can change children’s thinking about boys’ and girls’ toy preferences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 191, 104753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104753.
Leaper, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2018). Societal causes and consequences of gender typing of children’s toys. In E. S. Weisgram & L. M. Dinella (Eds.), Gender typing of children's toys: How early play experiences impact development (pp. 287–308). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000077-013.
Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(2), 1–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187.
Lillard, A. S., & Taggart, J. (2018). Pretend play and fantasy: What if Montessori was right? Child Development Perspectives, 13, 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12314.
Lillard, A. S., Lerner, M. D., Hopkins, E. J., Dore, R. A., Smith, E. D., & Palmquist, C. M. (2013). The impact of pretend play on children's development: A review of the evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029321.
Longobardi, E., Spataro, P., & Rossi-Arnaud, C. (2019). Direct and indirect associations of empathy, theory of mind, and language with prosocial behavior: Gender differences in primary school children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 180, 266–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2019.1653817.
Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Child Development, 52, 1119–1134. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129498.
Martin, C., Eisenbud, L., & Rose, H. (1995). Children's gender-based reasoning about toys. Child Development, 66(5), 1453–1471. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131657.
Meier, G., & Albrecht, M. H. (2003). The persistence process: Development of a stage model for goal-directed behavior. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 10, 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/107179190301000205.
Murnen, S. K. (2018). Fashion or action? Gender-stereotyped toys and social behavior. In E. S. Weisgram & L. M. Dinella (Eds.), Gender typing of children’s toys: How early play experiences impact development (pp. 189–211). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000077-010.
Murnen, S. K., Smolak, L., Mills, J. A., & Good, L. (2003). Thin, sexy women and strong, muscular men: Grade-school children’s responses to objectified images of women and men. Sex Roles, 49, 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1025868320206.
Murnen, S. K., Greenfield, C., Younger, A., & Boyd, H. (2015). Boys act and girls appear: A content analysis of gender stereotypes associated with characters in children’s popular culture. Sex Roles, 74, 78–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0558-x.
Nelson, A. (2000). The pink dragon is female: Halloween costumes and gender markers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb00194.x.
Newton, E. K., Goodman, M., & Thompson, R. A. (2013). Why do some toddlers help a stranger? Origins of individual differences in prosocial behavior. Infancy, 19, 214–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/infa.12043.
Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2014). Parental socialization of prosocial behavior: A multidimensional approach. In L. M. Padilla-Walker & G. Carlo (Eds.), Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach (pp. 131–155). New York: Oxford University Press.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carlo, G. (Eds.). (2014). Prosocial development: A multidimensional approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Coyne, S. M., Fraser, A. M., & Stockdale, L. A. (2013). Is Disney the nicest place on earth? A content analysis of prosocial behavior in animated Disney films. Journal of Communication, 63, 393–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12022.
Rasmussen, E. E., & Densley, R. L. (2016). Girl in a country song: Gender roles and objectification of women in popular country music across 1990 to 2014. Sex Roles, 76, 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0670-6.
Robinson II, T., Church, S. H., Callahan, C., Madsen, M., & Pollock, L. (2020). Virtue, royalty, dreams and power: Exploring the appeal of Disney princesses to preadolescent girls in the United States. Journal of Children and Media, 14, 510–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1711787.
Ruble, D. N., Lurye, L. E., & Zosuls, K. M. (2007). Pink frilly dresses (PFD) and early gender identity. Princeton Report on Knowledge, 2, 2.
Santiago, A. L. H. (2017). The 10 highest-grossing superhero franchises in the US. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/highest-grossing-superhero-franchises-in-the-us-2017-7.
Shin, H. (2017). Friendship dynamics of adolescent aggression, prosocial behavior, and social status: The moderating role of gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(11), 2305–2320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0702-8.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Child test battery: The toy preference questionnaire. University of Texas, United States: Unpublished manuscript.
Spinner, L., Cameron, L., & Calogero, R. (2018). Peer toy play as a gateway to children’s gender flexibility: The effect of (counter) stereotypic portrayals of peers in children’s magazines. Sex Roles, 79(5–6), 314–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0883-3.
Sullivan, J., Hipple, E., & Hyers, L. (2017). Female disempowerment disguised as a Halloween costume. The Open Family Studies Journal, 9, 60–75. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874922401709010060.
Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2003). Parent-child conversations about science: The socialization of gender inequities? Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 34–47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.34.
Todd, B. K., Barry, J. A., & Thommessen, S. A. O. (2016). Preferences for “gender-typed” toys in boys and girls aged 9 to 32 months. Infant and Child Development, 26, e1986. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1986.
Walsh, A., & Leaper, C. (2020). A content analysis of gender representations in preschool children’s television. Mass Communication and Society, 23, 331–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2019.1664593.
Weisgram, E. S., & Bruun, S. T. (2018). Predictors of gender-typed toy purchases by prospective parents and mothers: The roles of childhood experiences and gender attitudes. Sex Roles, 79(5–6), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0928-2.
Weisgram, E. S., & Dinella, L. M. (2018). Gender typing of children’s toys: How early play experiences impact development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000077-000.
Weisgram, E. S., Fulcher, M., & Dinella, L. M. (2014). Pink gives girls permission: Exploring the roles of explicit gender labels and gender-typed colors on preschool children's toy preferences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 401–409.
White, R. E., & Carlson, S. M. (2015). What would batman do? Self-distancing improves executive function in young children. Developmental Science, 19, 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12314.
White, R. E., Prager, E. O., Schaefer, C., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2017). The “batman effect”: Improving perseverance in young children. Child Development, 88, 1563–1571. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12695.
Acknowledgements
We thank Liam Coyne and his love of costumes and beautiful imagination for inspiring this research.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 5392 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Coyne, S.M., Rogers, A., Shawcroft, J. et al. Dressing up with Disney and Make-Believe with Marvel: The Impact of Gendered Costumes on Gender Typing, Prosocial Behavior, and Perseverance during Early Childhood. Sex Roles 85, 301–312 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01217-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01217-y