Abstract
This study explored the impact of explicit teaching of reading strategies on English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) students’ reading performance in Iran. The study employed a questionnaire adapted from Chamot and O’Malley’s (1994) cognitive and metacognitive strategies framework. To test the effects of explicit teaching of cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies on reading performance and strategy transfer, the study has a quasi-experimental design involving a contrast group and a treatment group, with whom an intervention program was implemented. The treatment group achieved significantly better results than the contrast group after four months of strategy-based instruction. Results of paired-sample t-tests and independent t-tests and effect size showed that reading comprehension and reading strategy use improved with strategy instruction. Moreover, SPANOVA analyses showed that the participants in the treatment group performed better than those in the contrast group in reading comprehension and reading strategy transfer. Results also showed that strategy instruction contributed to autonomous reading behaviors. Recommendations for further research are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading skills and reading strategies. Reading Teacher, 61, 364–373.
Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 75, 460–472.
Anderson, N. J. (2002a). The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning. Washington: ERIC Digest. Education Resources Information Center.
Anderson, N. J. (2002b). Using telescopes, microscopes, and kaleidoscopes to put metacognition into perspective. TESOL Matters, 12, 1–3.
Anderson, N. J. (2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757–771). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Byrd, E. H. (1999). Paired college study-reading courses: An investigation of the effectiveness of a reduced credit metacognitive model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University, Utah.
Byrd, E. H., Carter, E. C., & Waddoups, S. D. (2001). Taking control of your college reading and learning. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Carrell, P., Pharis, B., & Liberto, J. (1989). Metacognitive strategy training for ESL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 647–678.
Chamot, A. U. (1994). A Model for Learning Strategies Instruction in the Foreign language Classroom. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University roundtable on linguistics and applied linguistics (pp. 323–326). Washington: Georgetown University Press.
Chamot, A. U. (2001). The role of learning strategies in second language acquisition. In M. P. Breen (Ed.), Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research (pp. 25–43). Harlow, UK: Longman.
Chamot, A. U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 112–130.
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. New York: Longman.
Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P. B., Carbonaro, G., & Robbins, J. (1993). Methods of teaching learning strategies in the foreign language classroom and assessment of language skills for instruction. (ERIC Document Reproduction service No. D365157). Retrieved from October 20, 2009 from http://nclrc.org.
Chamot, A. U., Barnhardt, S., El-Dinary, P. B., & Robbins, J. (1999). The learning strategies handbook. New York: Longman.
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman.
Cohen, A. D. (2003). The learner’s side of foreign language learning: Where do style, strategies, and tasks meet? International Review of Applied Linguistics, 41, 279–291.
Cohen, A. D. (2011). Second language learner strategies. In E. Hinkle (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. 2, pp. 681–698). New York: Routledge.
Cohen, A. D., & Macaro, E. (Eds.). (2007). Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Cross, J. (2010). Raising metacognitive awareness of L2 listening: A sociocultural theory perspective. Language Awareness, 19, 281–297.
de Guerrero, M. (2005). Inner speech: L2: Thinking words in a second language. New York: Springer.
Dreyer, C., & Nel, C. (2003). Teaching reading strategies and comprehension within a technology-enhanced learning environment. System, 31, 349–365.
Eilers, L. H., & Pinkley, C. (2006). Metacognitive strategies help students to comprehend all text. Reading Improvement, 43, 13–17.
Flavell, J. H. (1971). First discussant’s comments: What is memory development the development of? Human Development, 14, 272–278.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of psychological inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 272–278.
Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail & J. W. Hagen (Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3–24). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Glass, G. V., McGaw, B., & Smith, M. L. (1981). Meta-analysis in social research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Goh, C. C. M. (1998). How learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2, 124–147.
Goh, C. C. M., Zhang, J. L., Ng, C. H., & Koh, G. H. (2005). Knowledge, beliefs and syllabus implementation: A study of English language teachers in Singapore. Singapore: National Institute of Education.
Gong, W. G., Zhang, D. L., Zhang, L. J., Kiss, T., & Ang-Tay, M. Y. (2011). Socio-psychological factors and strategy use in Singaporean schoolchildren’s English literacy learning. Reflections on English Language Teaching, 10, 1–23.
Goodwyn, A. (2010). The expert teacher of English. London: Routledge.
Grabe, W. (2004). Research on teaching reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 44–69.
Graham, S., & Macaro, E. (2008). Strategy instruction in listening for lower-intermediate learners of French. Language Learning, 58, 747–783.
Greenfell, M., & Macaro, E. (2007). Claims and critiques. In A. D. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 9–28). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Harris, V. (2004). Language learning strategies: A case for cross-curricular collaborations. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association (AERA) annual conference, San Diego, CA, April, 12–16.
Ikeda, M., & Takeuchi, O. (2003). Can strategy instruction help EFL learners to improve their reading ability? An empirical study. JACET Bulletin, 37, 49–60.
Kellerman, E. (1991). Compensatory strategies in second language research: A critique, a revision and some non-implications for the classroom. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, L. Selinker, M. Sharwood-Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.), Foreign and second language pedagogy research. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Kern, R. G. (1994). The role of mental translation in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 441–461.
Limbrick, L., & Parr, J. (2010). Contextualising practice: Hallmarks of effective teachers of writing. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 583–590.
Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). The role of self-efficacy beliefs in student engagement and learning in the classroom. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19, 119–137.
Macaro, E., & Erler, L. (2008). Raising the achievement of young-beginner readers of French through strategy instruction. Applied Linguistics, 29, 90–119.
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Nelson, J. (1977). Nelson language proficiency test. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1996). Learner strategy training in the classroom: An action research study. TESOL Journal, 6, 34–41.
O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Pedhazur, E., & Schmelkin, L. P. (1991). Measurement, design, and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pressley, M., Goodchild, F., Fleet, J., Zajchowski, R., & Evans, E. D. (1989). The challenges of classroom strategy instruction. Elementary School Journal, 89, 301–342.
Rees-Miller, J. (1993). A critical appraisal of learner training: Theoretical bases and teaching implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 679–689.
Richards, J. C., Hull, J., & Proctor, S. (2003). New interchange, book 3: Teachers’ edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, J., Chamot, A. U., Harris, V., & Anderson, N. J. (2007). Intervening in the use of strategies. In A. D. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 141–160). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Salataci, R., & Akyel, A. (2002). Possible effects of strategy instruction on L1 and L2 reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14, 1–23.
Schunk, D. H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting and self-evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19, 159–172.
Tapinta, P. (2006). Exploring Thai EFL university students’ awareness of their knowledge, use, and control of strategies in reading and writing. ProQuest, 161, 1–473.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thoughts and language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Wenden, A. L. (1999). Metacognitive knowledge and language learning. Applied Linguistics, 19, 515–537.
Zhang, L. J. (2008). Constructivist pedagogy in strategic reading instruction: Exploring pathways to learner development in the English as a second language (ESL) classroom. Instructional Science, 36, 89–116.
Zhang, L. J. (2010a). A dynamic metacognitive systems account of Chinese university students’ knowledge about EFL reading. TESOL Quarterly, 44, 320–353.
Zhang, L. J. (2010b). Negotiating language, literacy and identity: A sociocultural perspective on children’s language learning strategies in a multilingual ESL classroom in Singapore. The Applied Linguistics Review, 1, 247–270.
Zhang, Z. H., & Zhang, L. J. (2011). Developing and validating a listening comprehension problems scale for enhancing Chinese university students’ metacognitive awareness of L2 listening. Journal of Asia TEFL, 8, 318–335.
Zhang, L. J., Gu, P. Y., & Hu, G. (2008). A cognitive perspective on Singaporean bilingual children’s use of reading strategies in learning to read in English. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 245–271.
Zhang, L. J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and use of reading strategies. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21, 37–59.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Aghaie, R., Zhang, L.J. Effects of explicit instruction in cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies on Iranian EFL students’ reading performance and strategy transfer. Instr Sci 40, 1063–1081 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-011-9202-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-011-9202-5