Abstract
Permanently submerged sediment samples (SS) were collected in the center stream of eleven tributaries of Changjiang (Yangtze River) and at eight confluence zones in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in May and December of 2017. The work showed that aqua regia digestion is a simpler, more reliable and robust method compared to total digestion with hydrofluoric acid (HF) for the determination of trace metals (TMs) in sediment for risk assessment purpose. Our study revealed a remarkable accumulation of TMs at the confluence zones and a trend of their gradual increase toward this zone. The presence of iron and manganese (oxy)hydroxides combined with hydrodynamic conditions created by the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) and its operation are believed to play a crucial role. This work also found that concentrations of \( {\mathrm{NH}}_4^{+}-\mathrm{N} \) in May sediment were significantly higher than those in December, which could have been caused by both the cyclic hydrodynamic conditions and the warmer water. TOC and TP were both very low in the sediment. Although TN was 2 times higher than the Lowest Effect Level suggested by the Ontario Ministry of Environment, it is uncertain if it reflects a natural background level or due to anthropogenic activities. A critical discussion is made by comparing the conclusions obtained when using different TMs risk assessment models. Necessary precautions are highly recommended when performing this exercise. In this study, no significant risk from either TMs or nutrients was identified.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data sets supporting the results of this article are included within the article and its additional files.
References
Bai JH, Cui BS, Wang QG, Gao HF, Ding QY (2009) Assessment of heavy metal contamination of roadside soils in Southwest China. Stoch Environ Res Risk Assess 23:341–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-008-0219-5
Belzile N, Tessier A (1990) Interactions between arsenic and iron oxyhydroxides in lacustrine sediments. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:103–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(90)90198-t
Bing H, Zhou J, Wu Y, Wang X, Sun H, Li R (2016) Current state, sources, and potential risk of heavy metals in sediments of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ Pollut 214:485–496. dx.doi.org. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.062
Bing H, Wu Y, Zhou J, Sun H, Wang X, Zhu H (2019) Spatial variation of heavy metal contamination in the riparian sediments after two-year flow regulation in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Sci Total Environ 649:1004–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.401
Changjiang Water Resources Commission of the Ministry of Water Resources (2020) http://www.cjw.gov.cn/zwzc/bmgb/
Cheng H, Liang A, Zhi Z (2017) Heavy metals sedimentation risk assessment and sources analysis accompanied by typical rural water level fluctuating zone in the Three Gorges Reservoir. Environ Earth Sci 76:418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-6732-4
Chi QH, Yan MC (1994) Geochemistry of sediments of the China Shelf Sea. Science Press, Beijing
Craft CB, Seneca ED, Broome SW (1991) Loss on ignition and Kjeldahl digestion for estimating organic carbon and total nitrogen in estuarine marsh soils: calibration with dry combustion. Estuaries 14:175–179. https://doi.org/10.2307/1351691
Davison W (1993) Iron and manganese in lakes. Earth-Sci Rev 34:119–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(93)90029-7
Duan SW, Liang T, Zhang S, Wang LJ, Zhang XM, Chen XB (2008) Seasonal changes in nitrogen and phosphorus transport in the lower Changjiang River before the construction of the Three Gorges Dam. Estuar Cost Shelf Sci 29:239–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2008.04.002
Frémion F, Bordas F, Mourier B, Lenain JF, Courtin-Nomade A (2016) Influence of dams on sediment continuity: a study case of a natural metallic contamination. Sci Total Environ 547:282–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/jscitotenv.2016.01.023
Friedl G, Wüest A (2002) Disrupting biogeochemical cycles—consequences of damming. Aquat Sci 64:55–65 1015-1621/02/01005-11
Gao B, Zhou H, Huang Y, Wang Y, Gao J, Liu X (2014) Characteristics of heavy metals and Pb isotopic composition in sediments collected from the tributaries in Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Sci World J 12:685834. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/685384
Gao B, Zhou H, Yu Y, Wang Y (2015) Occurrence, distribution, and risk assessment of the metals in sediments and fish from the largest reservoir in China. RSC Adv 5:60322–60329. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra0922e
Gao JM, Sun XQ, Jiang WC, Wei YM, Guo JS, Liu YY, Zhang K (2016a) Heavy metals in sediments, soils, and aquatic plants from a secondary anabranch of the Three Gorges Reservoir region, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:10415–10425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6587-3
Gao Q, Li Y, Cheng Q, Yu M, Hu B, Wang Z, Yu Z (2016b) Analysis and assessment of the nutrients, biochemical indexes and heavy metals in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China from 2008 to 2013. Water Res 92:262–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.12.055
Gong GC, Chang J, Chiang KP, Hsiung TM, Hung CC, Duan SW, Codispoti LA (2006) Reduction of primary production and changing of nutrient ratio in the East China Sea: Effect of the Three Gorges Dam? Geophys Res Lett 34:337–339. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL025800
Håkanson L (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A sedimentological approach. Water Res 14:975–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8
Han C, Zheng B, Qin Y, Ma Y, Yang C, Liu Z, Cao W, Chi M (2018) Impact of upstream river inputs and reservoir operation on phosphorus fractions in water-particulate phases in the Three Gorges Reservoir. Sci Total Environ 610-611:1546–1556. https://doi.org/10.1019/j.scitotenv.2017.06.109
He LP, Liu D, Lin JJ, Yu ZG, Yang XX, Fu C, Liu ZX, Zhao QH (2017) Total nitrogen and pH-controlled chemical speciation, bioavailability and ecological risk from Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn in the water-fluctuating zone sediments of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Chem Speciation Bioavail 29:89–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/09542299.2017.1335179
Koshikawa MK, Takamatsu T, Takada J, Zhu M, Xu B, Chen Z, Murakami S, Xu K, Watanabe M (2007) Distributions of dissolved and particulate elements in the Yangtze estuary in 1997-2002: background data before the closure of the Three Gorges Dam. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 71:26–36. https://doi.org/10.1081/css-120000269
Kowalenko CG (2001) Assessment of Leco CNS-2000 analyzer for simultaneously measuring total carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur in soil. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 32:2065–2078. https://doi.org/10.1081/css-120000269
Liang A, Wang Y, Guo H, Bo L, Zhang S, Bai Y (2015) Assessment of pollution and identification of sources of heavy metals in the sediments of Changshou Lake in a branch of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:16067–16076. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4825-8
Lin J, Zhang S, Liu D, Yu Z, Zhang L, Cui J, Xie K, Li T, Fu C (2018) Mobility and potential risk of sediment-associated heavy metal fractions under continuous drought-rewetting cycles. Sci Total Environ 625:79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.167
Liu L, Liu D, Johnson DM, Yi Z, Huang Y (2012) Effects of vertical mixing on phytoplankton blooms in Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir: implications for management. Water Res 46:2121–2130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.01.029
Luo HJ, Liu DF, Huang YP (2014) Nitrogen characteristics in sediments of Xiangxi Bay, China Three-Gorge Reservoir. Water Environ J 28:45–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12008
MacDonald DD, Ingersoll CG, Berger TA (2000) Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystems. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 39:20–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240010075
Müller G (1979) Heavy metals in sediments from Rhein–changes since 1971. Umschau in Wissenschaft und Technik 79:778–783
Müller B, Berg M, Pernet-Coudrier B, Qi W, Liu H (2012) The geochemistry of the Yangtze River: seasonality of concentrations and temporal trends of chemical loads. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 36:GB2028. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GB004273
Persaud D, Jaagumagi R, Hayton A (1993) Guidelines for the protection and management of the aquatic sediment quality in Ontario. Ontario Ministry of the Environment
Ran XB, Chen HT, Wei JF, Yao QZ, Mi TZ, Yu ZG (2016) Phosphorus speciation, transformation and retention in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Mar Freshw Res 67:173–186. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF14344
Rauret G, Lopez-Sanchez JF, Sahuquillo A, Rubio R, Davidson C, Ureb A, Quevauviller P (1999) Improvement of BCR three step sequential extraction procedure prior to the certification of new sediment a soil reference materials. J Environ Monit 1:57–61. https://doi.org/10.1039/a807854h
Ren CP, Wang LJ, Zheng BH, Qian J, Ton HJ (2016) Ten-year change of total phosphorous pollution in the Min River, an upstream tributary of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Environ Earth Sci 75:1015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5789-9
Sun H, Wu Y, Bing H, Zhou J, Li N (2018) Available forms of nutrients and heavy metals control the distribution of microbial phospholipid fatty acids in sediments of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:5740–5751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0824-2
Tang J, Zhong Y, Wang L (2008) Background value of soil heavy metal in the Three Gorges Reservoir District. Chin J Eco-Agricult 16:848–852 (In Chinese)
Tang Q, Bao Y, Zhou X, Cao Z, Gao P, Zhong R, Hu Y, Zhang X (2014) Sedimentation and associated metal enrichment in the riparian zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Sci Total Environ 479-480:258–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.122
Tessier A, Campbell PGC, Bisson M (1979) Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals. Anal Chem 51:844–851
Tessier A. Carignan R. Belzile N (1994) Reactions of trace elements near the sediment-water interface in lakes. In: Transport and transformations of contaminants near the sediment–water interface, J.V. De Pinto, W. Lick & J.S. Paul (Eds), Lewis, 129-152. ISBN 0-87371-887-9
Wang JK, Gao B, Zhou HD, Lu J, Wang YC, Yin SH, Hao H, Yuan H (2012) Heavy metals pollution and its potential ecological risk of the sediments in Three Gorges Reservoir during its impounding period. Environ Sci 33:1693–1699 (In Chinese)
Wang QH, Ren YF, Meng L, Li H, Fu HM, Wang HF (2013) Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and organic carbon in soil with an elemental analyzer. Chin J Anal Lab 32:41–45 (In Chinese)
Wang L, Wang YP, Zhang WZ, Xu CX, An ZY (2014) Multivariate statistical techniques for evaluating and identifying the environmental significance of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the Yangtze River, China. Environ Earth Sci 71:1183–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-.013-2522-9
Wang LJ, Tian ZB, Li H, Cai J, Wang SJ (2016) Spatial and temporal variations of heavy metal pollution in sediments of Daning River under the scheduling of Three Gorges Reservoir. International Forum on Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development, Atlantis Press, pp 1036–1047
Wang T, Pan J, Liu X (2017) Characterization of heavy metal contamination in the soil and sediment of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. J Environ Sci Health A 52:201–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2016.1246937
Wei X, Han L, Gao B, Zhou H, Lu J, Wan X (2016) Distribution, bioavailability, and potential risk assessment of the metals in tributary sediments of Three Gorges Reservoir: the impact of water impoundment. Ecol Indic 61:667–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecol.ind.2015.10.018
Wu J, Huang J, Han X, Xie Z, Gao X (2003) Three Gorge Dam—experiment in habitat fragmentation? Science 300:1239–1240. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083312
Wu Y, Wang X, Zhou J, Bing H, Sun H, Wang J (2016) The fate of phosphorus in sediments after the full operation of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ Pollut 214:282–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.04.029
Xia JJ, Xu GH, Guo P, Peng H, Zhang X, Wang YG, Zhang WS (2018) Tempo-spatial analysis of water quality in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China, after its 175-m experimental impoundment. Water Resour Manag 32:2937–2954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-018-1918-4
Xiao SB, Liu DF, Wang YC, Gao B, Wang L, Duan YJ (2011) Characteristics of heavy metal pollution in sediments at the Xiangxi Bay of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Resour Environ Yangtze Basin 20:983–989 (In Chinese)
Xu XB, Tan Y, Yang GS (2013) Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and interventions. Earth-Sci Rev 124:115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013-05-007
Yang ZJ (2014) The mechanisms of algal blooms and its operation method through water level fluctuation under the situation of the bidirectional density currents in tributaries of the Three Gorges Reservoir. PhD thesis. School of Water Resource and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University183 pp. (In Chinese with English abstract)
Yang SL, Li M, Dai SB, Liu Z, Zhang J, Ding PX (2006) Drastic decrease in sediment supply from the Yangtze River and its challenge to coastal wetland management. Geophys Res Lett 33:L06408. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL025507
Yang Y, Gao B, Hao H, Zhou H, Lu J (2017) Nitrogen and phosphorus in sediments in China: A national-scale assessment and review. Sci Total Environ 576:840–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.136
Ye C, Li S, Zhang Y, Zhang Q (2011) Assessing soil heavy metal pollution in the water-level fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir. J Hazard Mater 191:366–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazmat.2011.04.090
Ye C, Butler OM, Du M, Liu W, Zhang Q (2019) Spatio-temporal dynamics, drivers and potential sources of heavy metal pollution in riparian soils along a 600-kilometre stream gradient in Central China. Sci Total Environ 651:1935–1945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.107
Yi YJ, Sun J, Tang CH, Zhang SH (2016) Ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in sediment in the upper reach of the Yangtze River. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:11002–11013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6296-y
Yuan J, Xu Q, Tong H (2013) Study of sediment deposition in region of Three Gorges Reservoir after its impoundment. J Hydroelectr Eng 32:139–147 (In Chinese)
Yuan P, Wu X, Xia Y, Peng C, Tong H, Liu J, Jiang L, Wang X (2020) Spatial and seasonal variations and risk assessment for heavy metals in surface sediments of the largest river-embedded reservoir in China. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s311356-020-09668-w
Zhang P, Liu C (2013) The study on the water level changes at certain water stations in the Three Gorges Reservoir at the earlier damming period. China Water Transport 12:42–44 (In Chinese)
Zhang CS, Zhang S, Zhang LC, Wang LJ (1995) Calculation of heavy metal contents in sediments of the Changjiang River system. Acta Sci Circumst 7:363–374 (In Chinese)
Zhang M, Xu Y, Shao M, Cai Q (2012) Sedimentary nutrients in the mainstream and its five tributary bays of a large subtropical reservoir (Three Gorges Reservoir, China). Quat Int 282:171–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.02.054
Zhang AY, Cornwell W, Li ZJ, Xiong GM, Yang D, Xie ZQ (2019) Dam effect on soil nutrients and potentially toxic metals in a reservoir riparian zone. Clean Soil Air Water 47:1700497. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201700497
Zhao YY, Yan MC (1994) Geochemistry of sediments of the China Shelf Sea. Science Press, Beijing
Zhao X, Gao B, Xu D, Gao L, Yin S (2017) Heavy metal pollution in sediments of the largest reservoir (Three Gorges Reservoir) in China: a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:20844–20858. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9874-8
Zheng B (chief editor) (2012) Technical guide for soil analyses. Chinese Agricultural publisher, Beijing. ISBN 978-7-109-17317-0, pp 353
Zheng R, Wang B, Chen S, Chen Y-W, Belzile N, Yang Y, Chen Y, Lin B, Liu Z, Sun J, Wang W (2020) Historic records on mineralogical and chemical compositions of a long sediment core from the Three Gorges Reservoir and implications for future studies. Environ Earth Sci (submitted)
Zhou AX, Chen N, Lu JY, Fang F, Guo JS (2011) Analysis and evaluation of sediment pollution of secondary rivers of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Procedia Environ Sci 10:2147–2152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2011.09-336
Zhu H, Bing H, Wu Y, Zhou J, Sun H, Wang J, Wang X (2019) The spatial and vertical distribution of heavy metal contamination in sediments of the three Gorges Reservoir determined by anti-seasonal flow regulation. Sci Total Environ 664:79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.016
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No.: 2016YFC0502204), and the Key Science and Technology Special Project (2018SZDZX0026) and the Key Research and Development Program (2019YFS0055) in Sichuan Province of China.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2016YFC0502204), Key Research and Development Program in Sichuan Province (2019YFS0055) and Key Science and Technology Special Project in Sichuan Province (2018SZDZX0026)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Bin Wang, Shu Chen designed experiments. Yuwei Chen, Nelson Belzile, Rui Zheng, Yuankun Yang, Kaibin Fu processed the experimental data, performed the analysis, drafted the manuscript and designed the figures. Yongcan Chen, Binliang Lin, Zhaowei Liu, Jian Sun aided in interpreting the results and worked on the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publish
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
1. The concentration of trace metals (TMs) extracted by aqua regia is a simple and more appropriate method in metal risk assessment.
2. The characteristic accumulation of TMs at confluence zones of Changjiang with its tributaries and the strong correlation of TMs with Fe and Mn oxyhydroxides indicate favorable hydrodynamic conditions there for adsorption and sedimentation of these TMs enriched particles.
3. N\( {\mathrm{H}}_4^{+} \)-N concentrations in May sediment are significantly higher than those of December, which could be induced by cyclic hydrodynamic conditions created by the Dam operation and by temperature change.
4. The conclusions on TMs risk assessment can be very different when different models are used, therefore necessary precautions are required in interpretation.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 29 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, B., Chen, S., Chen, Y. et al. The geochemical behavior of trace metals and nutrients in submerged sediments of the Three Gorges Reservoir and a critical review on risk assessment methods. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 33400–33415 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12827-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12827-8