Abstract
Lead (Pb) is a highly neurotoxic chemical element known for reducing intelligence quotient (IQ) and promoting antisocial behavior in children and adolescents, while cadmium (Cd) is a carcinogenic bioaccumulative element. Both these metals are included in the priority pollutant list of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and in the WHO List of Chemicals of Major Public Health Concern, where contaminated foods and beverages are the most common pathways of exposure. The objective of this study was to determine total Cd and Pb levels in colored plastic utensils (cups, mugs, bowls, feeding bottles, and plates) for use by children and to measure the specific migration of these elements into beverages and foods. Total contaminant levels were determined using a handheld X-ray fluorescence analyzer. Specific migration tests were conducted using the simulant solutions acetic acid 3% (m/v) and water. Migration levels were determined by ICP-MS. Specific migration tests for Pb were also performed on commercially available samples (cola soft drink, orange juice, vinegar, and milk), with levels determined by graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS). A total of 674 utensils were analyzed in loco at major commercial centers in Greater São Paulo, of which 87 were purchased for containing Cd and Pb concentrations above permitted limits. Mean concentrations of the metals detected in the purchased utensils were 1110 ppm for Pb and 338 ppm for Cd. For specific migration assays, Pb levels were 187, 13, and 380 times above the permitted limit (0.01 mg.kg -1) for acetic acid, water, and orange juice, respectively. Cd levels were 50 and 2.4 times above the maximum permitted limit (0.005 mg.kg -1) for acetic acid and water, respectively. The districts where the utensils were purchased were grouped according to their social vulnerability index and compared using ANOVA. Pb levels were different between low and medium/high social vulnerability groups (p = 0.006). The findings corroborate the initial hypothesis that these utensils constitute a major source of exposure to PTEs such as Cd and Pb, pointing to the need for stricter regulation and inspection by the Brazilian regulatory agencies.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).
References
Advisory Committee for Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention (2012) Low Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call for Primary Prevention Available in: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/data/blood-lead-reference-value.htm
Akimzhanova Z, Guney M, Kismelyeva S et al (2020) Contamination by eleven harmful elements in children’s jewelry and toys from Central Asian market. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:21071–21083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08631-5
Bellinger DC (2004) Lead Pediatrics 113(4 Suppl):1016–1022 (PMID: 15060194)
Blackowicz MJ, Hryhorczuk DO, Rankin KM et al (2016) The Impact of Low-Level Lead Toxicity on School Performance among Hispanic Subgroups in the Chicago Public Schools. Int J Environ Res Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080774
Brasil (2008) Lei nº 11.762, de 1º de agosto de 2008.Fixa o limite máximo de chumbo permitido na fabricação de tintas imobiliárias e de uso infantil e escolar, vernizes e materiais similares e dá outras providências. Diário Oficial União. [In Portuguese].
Brasil (2010a). Resolução de Diretoria Colegiada – RDC Nº 51, de 26 de novembro de 2010a. Dispõe sobre migração em materiais, embalagens e equipamentos plásticos destinados a entrar em contato com alimentos. Diário Oficial da União. [In Portuguese].
Brasil (2010b). Resolução do Conselho de Administração Colegiado - RDC No. 52, de 26 de Novembro de 2010b. Prevê tinturas em embalagens de plástico e equipamento destinado a estar em contacto com alimentos. Diário Oficial da União. [In Portuguese].
Carvalho LVB, Costa-Amaral IC, Mattos RCOC et al (2017). Exposição ocupacional a substâncias químicas, fatores socioeconômicos e Saúde do Trabalhador: uma visão integrada. Saúde em Debate, v.41, n. esp.2, p.313–326. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042017s226.
Cui XY, Li SW, Zhang SJ et al (2015) Toxic metals in children’s toys and jewelry: coupling bioaccessibility with risk assessment. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.01.035
Demont M, Boutakhrit K, Fekete V et al (2012) Migration of 18 trace elements from ceramic food contact material: influence of pigment, pH, nature of acid and temperature. Food Chem Toxicol 50(3–4):734–743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2011.12.043
Dickerson AS, Rahbar MH, Bakian AV et al (2016) Autism spectrum disorder prevalence and associations with air concentrations of lead, mercury, and arsenic. Environ Monit Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5405-1
EUROPEAN CHEMICAL AGENCY (2012). Cadmium and cadmium compounds in plastics. Next commission request for echa to prepare an annex xv dossier: status and preliminary implication. Preparatory report. Available in: https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/cadmium_in_plastics_prep_report_en.pdf/a8aa17dd-0c43-4f66-b3c5-bef1fb85fad6.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION (2002a). EN 1186–1: materials and articles in contact with foodstuffs – plastics. Part 1: guide to the selection of conditions and teste for overall migration. Brussels, 49 p.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION (2002b). EN 1186–3: materials and articles in contact with foodstuffs – plastics. Part 3: test methods for overall migration into aqueous food simulants buy total immersion. Brussels. 17 p.
Ferrreira APSDS, Pereira EC, Salles FJ et al (2019) Home-based and informal work exposes the families to high levels of potentially toxic elements. Chemosphere. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.083
Fundação Seade (2010) Índice de Vulnerabilidade Social. Governo do Estado de São Paulo, São Paulo Avaliable in: http://www.seade.gov.br/analises_estudos/indice-paulista-de-vulnerabilidade-social-o-ipvs/. Accessed 1 June 2021. (in Portuguese)
Freire MTA, Reyes FGR, Kuznesof PM et al (1998) Aspectos de legislação do mercado internacional de embalagens plásticas para alimentos. Polímeros. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-14281998000400007.[InPortuguese]
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci Adv. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782
Greenway JA, Gerstenberger S (2010) An evaluation of lead contamination in plastic toys collected from day care centers in the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, USA. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 85(4):363–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-010-0100-3
Guney M, Zagury GJ (2013) Contamination by Ten Harmful Elements in Toys and Children’s Jewelry Bought on the North American Market. Environ Sci Technol 47(11):5921–5930. https://doi.org/10.1021/es304969n
Hornung RW, Lanphear BP, Dietrich KN (2009) Age of greatest susceptibility to childhood lead exposure: a new statistical approach. Environ Health Perspect. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0800426
Hurip BR, Yeni Y (2021). Determination of Level of Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) Migration on Bowl and Clear Plastic Cup Using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.
Huzl F, Joachimsthaler J, Sykora J et al (1960). Lead poisoning in ceramic industry. Prac Lek. PMID: 14405678.
IARC (1993) Cadmium and cádmium compounds. IARC Monogr Eval Carcing Risks Hum 58:119–237 (PMID: 8022055)
Inmetro (2015): Relatório de análise de chumbo em tintas. Inmetro. Rio de Janeiro, setembro de 2015. [Em Português].
Inthorn D, Lertsupochavanich O, Silapanuntakul S et al (2002) Factors affecting lead leaching from microwavable plastic ware made with lead-containing pigments. J Food Prot 65(7):1166–71. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-65.7.1166
Kang S, Zhu J (2015) Total lead content and its bioaccessibility in base materials of low-cost plastic toys bought on the Beijing market. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 17:63–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0223-9
Kiyataka PH, Dantas ST, Pallone JA (2014) Method for assessing lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic in high-density polyethylene packaging and study of the migration into yoghurt and simulant. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 31(1):156–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2013.855826
Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J et al. (2005). Low-level environmental lead exposure and children's intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 127(9):99001. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7688.
Leroux IN, Ferreira APSDS, Silva JPDR et al (2018a) Lead exposure from households and school settings: influence of diet on blood lead levels. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3114-8
Leroux IN, Ferreira APSDS, Paniz FP et al (2018b) Lead, Cadmium, and Arsenic Bioaccessibility of 24 h Duplicate Diet Ingested by Preschool Children Attending Day Care Centers in Brazil. Int J Environ Res Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081778
Li Y, Hu J, Wu W et al (2016) Application of IEUBK model in lead risk assessment of children aged 61–84 months old in central China. Sci Total Environ 541:673–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.103.6
Magna GAM, Machado SL, Portella RB et al (2014). Avaliação da exposição ao Pb e Cd em crianças de 0 a 17 anos por consumo de alimentos vegetais cultivados em solos contaminados no município de Santo Amaro (BA). Eng. Sanit. Ambient. vol.19, n.spe, pp.3–12. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-41522014019010000430. [Em Português].
Mateus-García A, Ramos-Bonilla JP (2014) Presence of lead in paint of toys sold in stores of the formal market of Bogotá, Colombia. Environ Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.11.005
Mazumdar M, Bellinger DC, Gregas M et al (2011) Low-level environmental lead exposure in childhood and adult intellectual function: a follow-up study. Environ Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-24
Needleman H. Lead poisoning (2004). Annu Rev Med. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.med.55.091902.103653.
Olympio KPK, Gonçalves C, Günther WM et al (2009) Neurotoxicity and aggressiveness triggered by low-level lead in children: a review. Rev Panam Salud Publica 26(3):266–75. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1020-49892009000900011
Olympio KPK, Oliveira PV, Naozuka J et al (2010) Surface dental enamel lead levels and antisocial behavior in Brazilian adolescents. Neurotoxicol Teratol 32(2):273–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2009.12.003
Olympio KPK, Silva JPR, Silva AS et al (2018) Blood lead and cadmium levels in preschool children and associated risk factors in São Paulo, Brazil. Environ Pollut 240:831–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.124
Olympio KPK, Barbosa F, Silva AS et al (2015). Lead exposure in São Paulo, Brazil: blood levels and risk factors associated. In: 54th Annual Meeting and Tox Expo, San Diego, California, EUA. The Toxicologist - Supplement to Toxicological Sciences, vol. 144. Oxford University Press, pp. 104e105.
Olympio KPK, Gonçalves CG, Salles FJ et al (2017). What are the blood lead levels of children living in Latin America and the Caribbean? Environ Int 101:46–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.12.022.
OSHA (2013) Brief - Medical Evaluation of the Renal Effects of Cadmium Exposures. Available at: https://www.osha.gov/cadmium/health-effects. Accessed 7 July 2021.
Paulson JA, Brown MJ (2019) The CDC blood lead reference value for children: time for a change. Environ Health 18:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-019-0457-7
Pereira EC, Ferreira APS, Sato APS et al (2020) Home-based outsourced informal work by children and adolescents impacts sleep and leisure—a preliminary study. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09551-0
Rahimzadeh RM, Rahimzadeh MR, Kazemi S et al (2017). Cadmium toxicity and treatment: An update. Caspian J Intern Med. https://doi.org/10.22088/cjim.8.3.135.
Salles FJ, Tavares DJB, Freira BM et al (2021) Home-based informal jewelry production increases exposure of working families to cádmium. Sci Total Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147297
Schoeters G, Den HE, Zuurbier M et al (2006) Cadmium and children: exposure and health effects. Acta Paediatr Suppl 95(453):50–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/08035320600886232.
Silva JPR, Salles FJ, Leroux IN et al (2018) High blood lead levels are associated with lead concentrations in households and day care centers attended by Brazilian preschool children. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.04.080
Tamayo y Ortiz M, Téllez-Rojo MM, Hu H et al (2016) Lead in candy consumed and blood lead levels of children living in Mexico City. Environ Res 147:497–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.007.
Turner A (2018) Concentrations and Migratabilities of Hazardous Elements in Second-Hand children’s Plastic toys. Environ Sci Technol 52(5):3110–3116. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b04685
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (1997). CPSC Staff Report on Lead and Cadmium in Children's Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Products. Washington DC. Available in: https://www.cpsc.gov/content/cpsc-staff-report-lead-and-cadmium-childrens-polyvinyl-chloride-pvc-products (accessed 10 jun 2021).
Wagner PJ, Park HR, Wang Z et al (2017) In Vitro Effects of Lead on Gene Expression in Neural Stem Cells and Associations between Up-regulated Genes and Cognitive Scores in Children. Environ Health Perspect. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP265
Whitt M, Brown W, Danes JE et al (2016) Migration of heavy metals from recycled polyethylene terephthalate during storage and microwave heating. J Plast Film Sheeting 32(2):189–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/8756087915590190
World Health Organization (WHO). Childhood Lead Poisoning. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (2011) Available in: http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/leadguidance.pdf (accessed 10 jun 2021).
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their thanks to the volunteer storeowners who made their outlets available for analysis of utensils in loco using XRF.
Funding
This research project was financially supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP. grant #2016/11087–8, #2016/10060–9. INL and ECP both received study scholarships (grants FAPESP #2017/14392–9 and #2014/20945–2).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Elizeu Chiodi Pereira and Isabelle Nogueira Leroux: conceptualization, fieldwork, chemical analyses, manuscript’s writing, and final editing.
Maciel Santos Luz and Bruno Batista Lemos: Chemical analyses supervision, funding, manuscript’s final editing.
Kelly Polido Kaneshiro Olympio: study’s conceptualization and design, supervision, funding, manuscript’s writing, and final editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable, as this study did not include people or animals.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pereira, E.C., Leroux, I.N., Luz, M.S. et al. Study of controlled migration of cadmium and lead into foods from plastic utensils for children. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 52833–52843 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19433-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19433-2