Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The environmental impact of activities after life: life cycle assessment of funerals

  • LCA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
  • Published:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Although the funeral market is propagating new ‘green’ alternatives and exploring innovative techniques like resomation, very little is known about the environmental impact of funerals. This research aimed to develop a benchmark of funerals, by quantifying the environmental impacts of the most common funeral techniques, i.e. burial and cremation, by identifying where the main impacts originate from and by comparing these impacts to impacts of other activities during a person’s life.

Methods

The environmental impacts of funerals were analysed by means of a life cycle assessment (LCA), based on Dutch company information, literature and expert judgements. The results were analysed per impact category but also on an aggregated level by means of shadow prices. Two sensitivity analyses were performed: one examined the high impact of cotton in funeral coffins; the other checked the results by means of another weighting method.

Results and discussion

The results showed no significant difference between the two funeral techniques in five impact categories. Burial has the lowest impact in more than half of the categories, but its impact is many times higher in the two most differing categories than for cremation. The total shadow price of burial is about 30 % higher than the shadow price of cremation, but the main cause for this difference is a highly debated category, namely land use. If the results would be considered without the shadow prices of land impact categories, burial would score 25 % lower than cremation. These results are representing average practise and may deviate on certain aspects for other countries, but as a starting point for further studies, this benchmark is well applicable.

Conclusions and recommendations

This study delivered an environmental benchmark of funerals and insights in the impacts of the individual processes, which can be used in further assessment of ’green’ funeral options. The benchmark results show that the environmental impact of funerals is largely determined by secondary processes and that the total impact can be quite small in comparison to other human activities. Besides these environmental insights, it is important to take into account social, cultural, climatic, local, economical and ethical arguments before changing policies or giving recommendations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Appelman W, Kok H (2005) Beoordeling van de milieu-effecten van het Amalgator kwikafvangsysteem voor crematoria. TNO, Apeldoorn

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelrad D, Goodman S, Woodruff T (2009) PCB body burdens in US women of childbearing age 2001-2002: an evaluation of alternate summary metrics of NHANES data. Environ Res 109(4):368–378

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brinkmann FJJ, Canton JH, Derks HJGM, Hagen-Fast AK, Slingerland P, Willemsen WH (1987) Drainwater van begraafplaatsen, ontvangend oppervlaktewater en groundwater. Onderzoek van de gehalten van enige aan de ontleding van dierlijke weefsels en organen gerelateerde organische parameters. Toxicologisch onderzoek met waterorganismen. Rapportnummer 840276001. RIVM, Bilthoven

  • Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2003) Steeds minder mensen hebben een kunstgebit. Webmagazine. www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/gezondheid-welzijn/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2003/2003-1308-wm.htm. Accessed 12 June 2015

  • de Groot H, Brander L, van der Ploeg S, Costanza R, Bernard F, Braat L, Christie M, Crossman N, Ghermandi A, Hein L, Hussain S, Kumar P, McVittie A, Portela R, Rodriguez LC, ten Brink P, van Beukering P (2012) Global estimates of the value of ecosystems and their services in monetary units. Ecosyst Serv 1:50–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molenaar JG de, Mennen, MG, Kistenkas FH (2009) Terug naar de natuur. Mogelijke effecten en juridische aspecten t.a.v. natuurbegraven, asverstrooien en urnbijzetting in natuurgebieden. Alterra Wageningen

  • de Bruyn S, Korteland M, Markowska A, Davidson M, de JF, Bles M, Sevenster M (2010) Shadow prices handbook. Valuation and weighting of emissions and environmental impacts. CE, Delft

    Google Scholar 

  • Dent B (2002) The hydrogeological context of cemetery operations and planning in Australia. PhD Thesis. University of Technology, Sydney

  • Dent B, Knight M (1998) Cemeteries: a special kind of landfill. The context of their sustainable management. Conference of the International Association of Hydrogeologists: “groundwater: sustainable solutions”. International Association of Hydrogeologists, Melbourne, pp. 451–456

    Google Scholar 

  • Dent BD, Forbes SL, Stuart BH (2004) Review of human decomposition processes in soil. Environ Geol 45(4):576–585

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doka G (2007) Life cycle inventories of waste treatment services. Ecoinvent report no. 13. Part III, landfills—underground deposits—landfarming. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf

    Google Scholar 

  • Eggels P, van Ven B (2000) Background data for the building environment, a reference database. The VLCA database. TNO-MEP R2000/130. TNO, Apeldoorn

  • Elzenga JG (1996) Crematoria. RIVM, Bilthoven

    Google Scholar 

  • Feifel S, Walk W, Wursthorn S (2010) LCA, how are you doing today? A snapshot from the 5th German LCA workshop. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15:139–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes G (1987) Human body composition: growth, aging, nutrition, and activity. Springer-Verlag, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Frischknecht R (2010) LCI modelling approaches applied on recycling of materials in view of environmental sustainability, risk perception and eco-efficiency. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15:666–671

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frischknecht R, Jungbluth N, Althaus H-J, Doka G, Heck T, Hellweg S, Hischier R, Nemeck T, Rebitzer G, Spielmann M, Wernet G (2007) Overview and methodology. Ecoinvent report no. 1. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf

  • GHD (2007) Centennial Park Cemetery Authority. Report for environmental footprint study: cremation vs. burial. Final report

  • Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, de Schryver A, Struijs J, van Zelm R (2013) ReCiPe 2008, a life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level; first edition (version 1.08) report I: characterisation. PRé Consultants, Amersfoort & CML, Leiden & RUN, Nijmegen & RIVM, Bilthoven

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey PA, Baghri S, Reed RA (2002) Emergency sanitation: assessment and programme design. Chapter 9: disposal of dead bodies. WEDC. Loughborough University, Leicestershire

    Google Scholar 

  • Huijbregts MAJ, Rombouts LJA, Hellweg S, Frischknecht R, Hendrinks AJ, van Meent D, Ragas AMJ, Reijnders L, Struijs J (2006) Is cumulative fossil energy demand a useful indicator for the environmental performance of products? Environ Sci Technol 40(3):641–648

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iserson KV (1994) Death to dust. What happens to death bodies. Galen Press Ltd, Tucson

    Google Scholar 

  • Koellner T, Scholz RW (2007) Assessment of land use impacts on the natural environment. Part 1: an analytical framework for pure land occupation and land use change. Int J Life Cycle Assess 12(1):16–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Life Cycle Initiative (2004) Declaration of Apeldoorn on LCIA of non-ferrous metals. www.lifecycleinitiative.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Declaration_Apeldoorn_final.pdf. Accessed 12 June 2015

  • Lima I, McAloon A, Boateng A (2008) Activated carbon from broiler litter: process description and cost of production. Biomass Bioenerg 32:568–572

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mari M, Domingo JL (2010) Toxic emissions from crematories: a review. Environ Int 36:131–137

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mila i Canals L, Romanyà J, Cowell SJ (2007) Method for assessing impacts on life support functions (LSF) related to the use of ‘fertile land’ in life cycle assessment (LCA). J Clean Prod 15:1426–1440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monaghan A (2009) Conceptual niche management of grassroots innovation for sustainability: the case of body disposal practices in the UK. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 76(8):1026–1043

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morren G (2010) Niet al het goud blinkt. Onderzoek naar edelmetalen en chirurgisch staal in crematieas bij Nederlandse en Duitse crematoria. Landelijke Vereniging van Crematoria

  • Pagels B, Fleige H, Horn R (2003) Bodenkundliche und Umweltprobleme auf Friedhöfen in Deutschland. Zentralverband des Deutschen Baugewerbes, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Remmerswaal H, van de Heuvel L (2005) Lifecycle inventory of obsequies. A comparison of the environmental consequences of various ways of funeral in the Netherlands. University of Technology Delft, Delft

    Google Scholar 

  • Santarsiero A, Trevisan G, Cappiello G, Formenton G, Dell’Andrea E (2005) Urban crematoria emissions as they stand with current practice. Microchem J 79:199–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Schram R (2006) Crematorium Leiden emissieonderzoek 2006. R001-4444100RSA-sbk-V01-NL. Tauw, Deventer

  • Slooff W, Beelen P van, Annema JA, Janus JA (eds.) (1994) Basisdocument kwik. Rapportnummer 710401023. RIVM, Bilthoven

  • Smit ER (1996) Massabalans en emissies van in Nederland toegepaste crematieprocessen. TNO MEP R96/095: TNO Milieu, Energie en Procesinnovatie, Apeldoorn

  • Spongberg AL, Becks PM (2000a) Inorganic soil contamination from cemetery leachate. Water Air Soil Pollut 117:313–327

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spongberg AL, Becks PM (2000b) Organic contamination in soils associated with cemeteries. Soil Sediment Contam 9(2):87–97

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trick J, Klinck B, Coombs J, Noy D, Williams G (2005) Burial sites and their impact on groundwater. In: Thomson NR (ed) Proceedings of the 4th International Groundwater Quality Conference: Bringing groundwater quality research to the watershed scale. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, pp 36–43

  • UNEP (2011) Keeping track of our changing environment: from Rio to Rio+20 (1992–2012). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA), Nairobi

  • van Dijk S, Mennen M (2002) Lijkbezorging in Nederland. Evaluatie inspectierichtlijn, overzicht van de branche en inzicht in naleving van regelgeving. RIVM, Bilthoven

    Google Scholar 

  • van Haaren FWJ (1951) Kerkhoven als bron van waterverontreiniging. Water 35(16):167–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmelen T van, Korenromp R, Deutekom C van, Ligthart T, Leeuwen S van, Gijlswijk R van (2007) The price of toxicity. Methodology for the assessment of shadow prices for human toxicity, ecotoxicity and abiotic depletion. In: Huppes G, Ishikawa M (eds) Quantified Eco-Efficiency. Springer, pp 105–125

  • van Harmelen T, van Horssen A, Jongeneel S, Ligthart T (2012) Shadow prices of biomass relevant impacts. TNO, Utrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Welch R, Swerdlow R (2009) Cryomation limited—carbon trust incubator—due diligence report. Isis Innovation Limited, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (1998) Assessment of the health risk of dioxins: re-evaluation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Executive summary. WHO Consultation May 25–29 1998. WHO European Centre for Environment and Health, International Programme on Chemical Safety, Geneva

  • Worldbank (2015a) CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita). http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PC. Accessed 22–08-2015

  • Worldbank (2015b) Netherlands Data. http://data.worldbank.org/country/Netherlands. Accessed 22–08-2015

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was partly commissioned by the Dutch funeral company Yarden. Numerous persons from companies in the funeral sector provided input for this research: John Heskes, Eric Krohne and Sabine Perotti (Yarden); Ruud Verberne (Orthometals); Bert Daling (Groentotaal de Boer); Cor Smulders (Genius Loci); Steven Wagner (Unigra); Nico Willemse (Facultatieve Technologies); Ron Endlich (De Gedenkgroep); Elmar Sommer (SVT); Wim van Midwoud (Landelijke Organisatie Begraafplaatsen); Ruud Vink (Honour Piëteitstechniek); William Schelkers (Funeral Products) and John Bassant (Aqua Omega) and employees of IFZW, Hesselmans International and Landelijke Vereniging Crematoria.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. TNO, Post box 80015, 3508TA, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Elisabeth Keijzer

Authors
  1. Elisabeth Keijzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elisabeth Keijzer.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Adriana Del Borghi

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 46.1 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Keijzer, E. The environmental impact of activities after life: life cycle assessment of funerals. Int J Life Cycle Assess 22, 715–730 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1183-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1183-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation