Abstract
This article explores contrasting interpretations of early Confucian philosophy as they apply to education, focusing primarily on the Analects of Confucius (Lunyu 論語), the Mencius (Mengzi 孟子), and the Xunzi 荀子. I first describe a common interpretation of the Confucian worldview, according to which an already perfected way is thought to have been established. This view tends to encourage thinking of education as a process of conveying the True Way and ensuring conformity to the norms that constitute it. I then describe and defend a contrasting Confucian worldview, in which the learner’s initiative, critical engagement, creativity, and personal qualities play a significant role. According to this interpretation, the way is, to some degree, indeterminate and evolving, and thus more open to participatory inquiry as well as influence. Illustrious virtue, which Confucian learning aims at developing, is likewise to some degree indeterminate and legitimately personalized. Although some degree of conformity to established norms is involved, especially in early stages, Confucian education culminates in the cultivation of personal distinction, developing one’s own uniqueness.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ames, Roger T., and Henry Rosemont Jr. 1998. The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. New York: Ballantine Books.
Ballard, Brigid, and John Clanchy. 1991. Teaching Students from Overseas: A Brief Guide for Lecturers and Supervisors. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
Biggs, John B. 1996. “Western Misperceptions of the Confucian-heritage Learning Culture.” In The Chinese Learner: Cultural, Psychological, and Contextual Influences, edited by D. A. Watkins and J. B. Biggs. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Centre.
Chan, Joseph. 2008. “Confucian Attitudes Toward Ethical Pluralism.” In Confucian Political Ethics, edited by Daniel Bell. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chan, Wing-tsit, trans. 1963. A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Cortazzi, M., and L. Jin. 1999. “Cultural Mirrors: Materials and Methods in the EFL Classroom.” In Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning, edited by E. Hinkel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cua, A. S. 1998. Moral Vision and Tradition: Essays in Chinese Ethics. Washington: Catholic University of America Press.
Gaulé, Patrick, and Mario Piacentini. 2013. “Chinese Graduate Students and US Scientific Productivity.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 95.2: 698–701.
Gier, Nicholas F. 2001. “The Dancing Ru: A Confucian Aesthetics of Virtue.” Philosophy East and West 51.2: 280–305.
Hagen, Kurtis. 2007. The Philosophy of Xunzi: A Reconstruction. Chicago: Open Court.
______. 2010. “The Propriety of Confucius: A Sense-of-Ritual.” Asian Philosophy 20.1: 1–25.
______. 2021a. “Confucianism as a Tradition of Reconstruction: Returning to the ‘Way of Heaven’?” In One Corner of the Square: Essays on the Philosophy of Roger T. Ames, edited by Ian Sullivan and Joshua Mason. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
______. 2021b. Lead Them with Virtue: A Confucian Alternative to War. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Hagen, Kurtis, and Steve Coutinho. 2018. Philosophers of the Warring States: A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy. Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
Hansen, Chad. 1992. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Harris, Robert. 1995. “Overseas Students in the United Kingdom University System.” Higher Education 29.1: 77–92.
Harvey, Paul. 1985. “A Lesson to be Learned: Chinese Approaches to Language Learning.” ELT Journal 39.3: 183–186.
Ho, David Y. F. 2014. “Cognitive Socialization in Confucian Heritage Cultures.” In Cross-cultural Roots of Minority Child Development, edited by Patricia M. Greenfield and Rodney R. Cocking. New York: Psychology Press.
Huang, Chichung. 1997. The Analects of Confucius: A Literal Translation with an Introduction and Notes. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ivanhoe, Philip J. 1990. “Thinking and Learning in Early Confucianism.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 17.4: 473–493.
______. 2000. “Human Nature and Moral Understanding in the Xunzi.” In Virtue, Nature, and Moral Agency in the Xunzi, edited by T. C. Kline III and Philip J. Ivanhoe. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett.
______. 2014. “A Happy Symmetry: Xunzi’s Ecological Ethic.” In Ritual & Religion in the Xunzi, edited by T. C. Kline III and Justin Tiwald. Albany: SUNY Press.
Kim, Terri. 2009. “Confucianism, Modernities and Knowledge: China, South Korea and Japan.” In International Handbook of Comparative Education, edited by R. Cowen and A. M. Kazamias. Dordrecht: Springer.
Knoblock, John. 1988, 1990, 1994. Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works. 3 vols. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Lau, D. C., trans. 1963. Lao Tzu: Tao Te Ching. New York: Penguin Books.
Madsen, Richard. 2008. “Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society.” In Confucian Political Ethics, edited by Daniel Bell. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Murase, Hiroya 村瀬裕也. 1986. The World of Xunzi 荀子の世界. Tokyo 東京: Nichu Shuppan 日中出版.
Nosco, Peter. 2008. “Confucian Perspectives on Civil Society and Government.” In Confucian Political Ethics, edited by Daniel Bell. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Puett, Michael. 2001. The Ambivalence of Creation: Debates Concerning Innovation and Artifice in Early China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Rothbard, Murray N. 2010. Education: Free & Compulsory. Auburn, AL: Ludwig von Mises Institute.
Spencer, Herbert. 1851. State-Education Self-Defeating. London: John Chapman.
Starr, Don. 2012. “China and the Confucian Education Model.” Universitas 21 (May). https://www.scribd.com/document/289381922/56Confucian-Education-Model-Position-Paper-pdf (last accessed on 17 February, 2022).
Tan, Charlene. 2015. “Beyond Rote-Memorisation: Confucius’ Concept of Thinking.” Educational Philosophy and Theory 47.5: 428–439.
______. 2017. “A Confucian Conception of Critical Thinking.” Journal of Philosophy of Education 51.1: 331–343.
Wu, Zongjie. 2011. “Interpretation, Autonomy, and Transformation: Chinese Pedagogic Discourse in a Cross-cultural Perspective.” Curriculum Studies 43.5: 569–590.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hagen, K. Confucian Education: From Conformity to Cultivating Personal Distinction. Dao 21, 213–234 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-022-09826-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-022-09826-y