Abstract
Purpose
Using a 1-year old male infant as the model subject, the objectives of this study were to measure increased body temperature of an infant inside an enclosed vehicle during the work day (8:00 am–4:00 pm) during four seasons and model the time to un-compensable heating, heat stroke [>40 °C (>104 °F)], and critical thermal maximum [>42 °C (>107.6 °F)].
Methods
A human heat balance model was used to simulate a child’s physiological response to extreme heat exposure within an enclosed vehicle. Environmental variables were obtained from the nearest National Weather Service automated surface observing weather station and from an observational vehicular temperature study conducted in Austin, Texas in 2012.
Results
In all four seasons, despite differences in starting temperature and solar radiation, the model infant reached heat stroke and demise before 2:00 pm. Time to heat stroke and demise occurred most rapidly in summer, at intermediate durations in fall and spring, and most slowly in the winter. In August, the model infant reached un-compensable heat within 20 min, heat stroke within 105 min, and demise within 125 min. The average rate of heating from un-compensable heat to heat stroke was 1.7 °C/h (3.0 °F/h) and from heat stroke to demise was 4.8 °C/h (8.5 °F/h).
Conclusions
Infants left in vehicles during the workday can reach hazardous thermal thresholds quickly even with mild environmental temperatures. These results provide a seasonal analogue of infant heat stroke time course. Further effort is required to create a universally available forensic tool to predict vehicular hyperthermia time course to demise.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Traffic safety facts, crash stats: not-in-traffic surveillance—non-crash injuries. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis; 2012. Contract No. DOT HS 811 655.
Null J. Fact sheet: Hyperthermia deaths of children in vehicles. Department of Geosciences, San Francisco State University. 2013. http://ggweather.com/heat/. Accessed 27 March 2013.
Grundstein AJ, Null J, Meentemeyer V. Weather, geography, and vehicle-related hyperthermia in children. Geogr Re. 2011;101(3):353–70.
Duzinski SV, Barczyk AN, Wheeler TC, Iyer SS, Lawson KA. Threat of paediatric hyperthermia in an enclosed vehicle: a year-round study. Inj Prev. 2014;20(4):220–5.
Bouchama A, Knochel JP. Heat stroke. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(25):1978–88.
Bynum GD, Pandolf KB, Schuette WH, Goldman RF, Lees DE, Whang-Peng J, et al. Induced hyperthermia in sedated humans and the concept of critical thermal maximum. Am J Physiol. 1978;235(5):R228–36.
Epstein Y, Roberts WO. The pathopysiology of heat stroke: an integrative view of the final common pathway. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011;21(6):742–8.
Leon LR, Helwig BG. Heat stroke: role of the systemic inflammatory response. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2010;109(6):1980–8.
Grundstein AJ, Meentemeyer V, Dowd J. Maximum vehicle cabin temperatures under different meteorological conditions. Int J Biometeorol. 2009;53(3):255–61.
Marty WT, Sigrist T, Wyler D. Temperature variations in automobiles in various weather conditions: an experimental contribution to the determination of time of death. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2001;22:215–9.
McLaren C, Null J, Quinn J. Heat stress from enclosed vehicles: moderate ambient temperatures cause significant temperature rise in enclosed vehicles. Pediatrics. 2005;116(1):e109–12.
Roberts KB, Roberts EC. The automobile and heat stress. Pediatrics. 1976;58(1):101–4.
Surpure JS. Heat-related illness and the automobile. Ann Emerg Med. 1982;11(5):61–3.
Zumwalt RE, Petty CS. Temperatures in closed automobiles in hot weather. Forensic Sci Gazette. 1976;7:7–8.
Grundstein AJ, Dowd J, Meentemeyer V. Quantifying the heat-related hazard for children in motor vehicles. BAMS. 2010;91:1183–91.
Blazejczyk K. New climatological-and-physiological model of the human heat balance outdoor (MENEX) and its applications in bioclimatological studies in different scales. Zeszyty IgiPZ PAN. 1994;28:27–58.
Katavoutas G, Theoharatos G, Flocas HA, Asimakopoulos DN. Measuring the effects of heat wave episodes on the human body’s thermal balance. Int J Biometeorol. 2009;53(2):177–87.
Tuller SE. Climatic controls of the cool human thermal sensation in a summertime onshore wind. Int J Biometeorol. 1997;41(1):26–33.
Roza AM, Shizgal HM. The Harris Benedict equation reevaluated: resting energy requirements and the body cell mass. Am J Clin Nutr. 1984;40(1):168–82.
Hoppe P, Martinac I. Indoor climate and air quality. Review of current and future topics in the field of ISB study group 10. Int J Biometeorol. 1998;42(1):1–7.
McCall RP. Physics of the human body. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010.
Alahmer AMA, Mayyas AA, Omar MA, Shanc D. Vehicular thermal comfort models; a comprehensive review. Appl Thermal Eng. 2011;31:995–1002.
Dadour IR, Almanjahie I, Fowkes ND, Keady G, Vijayan K. Temperature variations in a parked vehicle. Forensic Sci Int. 2011;207(1–3):205–11.
Ding Y, Zito R. Cabin heat transfer and air conditioning capacity. SAE Technical Paper; 2001.
Fayazbakhsh MA, Bahrami M. Comprehensive modeling of vehicle air conditioning loads using heat balance method. SAE Technical Paper; 2013.
Rugh J, Chaney L, Ramroth L, Venson T, Rose M. Impact of solar control PVB glass on vehicle interior temperatures, air-conditioning capacity, fuel consumption, and vehicle range. SAE Technical Paper; 2013.
Zheng Y, Mark B, Youmans H. A simple method to calculate vehicle heat load. SAE Technical Paper; 2011.
Becker JA, Stewart LK. Heat-related illness. Am Fam Physician. 2011;83(11):1325–30.
Bouchama A, Dehbi M, Chaves-Carballo E. Cooling and hemodynamic management in heatstroke: practical recommendations. Crit Care. 2007;11(3):R54.
Tsuzuki-Hayakawa K, Tochihara Y, Ohnaka T. Thermoregulation during heat exposure of young children compared to their mothers. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1995;72(1–2):12–7.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Grundstein, A.J., Duzinski, S.V., Dolinak, D. et al. Evaluating infant core temperature response in a hot car using a heat balance model. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 11, 13–19 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9619-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-014-9619-7