Abstract
This paper presents the first petro-structural data as well as morphological characterization of alluvial gold nuggets and related heavy minerals, from the Guiwa-Yangamo area within the Batouri goldfield (Cameroon). This area comprises metamorphic rocks including various gneisses and amphibolite, intruded by granite and granodiorite. Structural analysis reveals four main tectonic phases: the early (D1) and D2 deformations show ductile behavior, while D3 and D4 are ductile-brittle and late brittle respectively. Two main shear zones comprising the NW–SE- to NNW–SSE-trending ductile shear and ENE–WSW-trending ductile-brittle shear zone related respectively to D2 and D3 deformations are distinguished. These shear zones are well known in the Batouri goldfield as hosting gold-bearing quartz veins. Evidences for hydrothermal alteration such as chloritization, sericitization, and silification were identified in gold-bearing granitoids of the Batouri goldfield. Morphological characterization of alluvial gold grains and analysis of related heavy minerals indicate both long transport (> 1000m) and relatively short transport (0–300m), suggesting that they come from either the neighboring Lom group rocks or a local source (probably from the surrounding magmatic and metamorphic rocks). A shear zone–related origin is also proposed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
References
Allibone AH, McCuaig TC, Harris D, Etheridge M, Munroe S, Byrne D, Amanor J, Gyapong W (2002a) Structural controls on gold mineralization at the Ashanti deposit, Obuasi, Ghana. Society of Economic Geologists
Allibone AH, McCuaig TC, Harris D, Etheridge M, Munroe S, Byrne D, Amanor J, Gyapong W (2002b) Structural controls on gold mineralization at the Ashanti Deposit, Obuasi, Ghana. In: Goldfarb RJ, Nielsen RL (eds) Integrated methods for discovery: global exploration in the twenty-first century. Society of Economic Geologists, pp 65–93
de Almeida FFM, Hasui Y, de Brito Neves BB, Fuck RA (1981) Brazilian structural provinces: an introduction. Earth Sci Rev 17(1):1–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(81)90003-9
Asaah AV, Zoheir B, Lehmann B, Frei D, Burgess R, Suh CE (2014) Geochemistry and geochronology of the 620 Ma gold-associated Batouri granitoids, Cameroon. Int Geol Rev 57(11–12):1485–1509. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.951003
Asaah AV, Zoheir B, Lehmann B, Frei D, Burgess R, Suh CE (2015) Geochemistry and geochronology of the 620 Ma gold-associated Batouri granitoids, Cameroon. Int Geol Rev 57(11–12):1485–1509. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2014.951003
Bouyo Houketchang M, Toteu SF, Deloule E, Penaye J, Van Schmus WR (2009) U–Pb and Sm–Nd dating of high-pressure granulites from Tcholliré and Banyo regions: evidence for a Pan-African granulite facies metamorphism in north-central Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sci 54(5):144–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2009.03.013
Burnham AD (2020) Key concepts in interpreting the concentrations of the rare earth elements in zircon. Chem Geol 551:119765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2020.119765
Cascalho J (2019) Provenance of heavy minerals: a case study from the WNW Portuguese continental margin. Minerals 9(6):355. https://doi.org/10.3390/min9060355
Chauvet A, Piantone P, Barbanson L, Nehlig P, Pedroletti I (2001) Gold deposit formation during collapse tectonics: structural, mineralogical, geochronological, and fluid inclusion constraints in the Ouro Preto gold mines, Quadril átero Ferrífero, Brazil. Econ Geol 96(1):25–48. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.96.1.25
Cornacchia M, Dars R (1983) Un trait structural majeur du continent Africain; les lineaments centrafricains du Cameroun au Golfe d’Aden. Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France S7-XXV(1):101–109. https://doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.S7-XXV.1.101
Dubé B (2007) Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits. Mineral deposits in Canada : a synthesis of major deposit-types, distric metallogeny, the evolution of geological provinces, and exploration methods :49–73
Duplaix S (1958) Determination microscopique des mineraux des sables. Librairire Polyt C Béranger, Dunod, Paris, 79P :79p
Fossen H, Tikoff B (1998) Extended models of transpression and transtension, and application to tectonic settings. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ 135(1):15–33. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.135.01.02
Fyhn MBW, Thomsen TB, Keulen N, Knudsen C, Rizzi M, Bojesen-Koefoed J, Olivarius M, Tri TV, Phach PV, Minh NQ, Abatzis I, Nielsen LH (2019) Detrital zircon ages and heavy mineral composition along the Gulf of Tonkin - implication for sand provenance in the Yinggehai-Song Hong and Qiongdongnan basins. Mar Pet Geol 101:162–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2018.11.051
Ganwa AA, Frisch W, Siebel W, Ekodeck GE, Shang CK, Ngako V (2008) Archean inheritances in the pyroxene–amphibole-bearing gneiss of the Méiganga area (Central North Cameroon): geochemical and 207Pb/206Pb age imprints. Compt Rendus Geosci 340(4):211–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2007.12.009
Ganwa AA, Siebel W, Frisch W, Shang CK, Ekodeck GE (2011) Geochemistry and geochronology of the Méiganga metadiorite: implications on the timing of D2 deformational phase in Adamawa Yadé Domain in Cameroon. Int J Biol Chem Sci 5(4):1754–1767. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v5i4.37
Ganwa AA, Klötzli US, Hauzenberger C (2016) Evidence for Archean inheritance in the pre-Panafrican crust of Central Cameroon: insight from zircon internal structure and LA-MC-ICP-MS UPb ages. J Afr Earth Sci 120:12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.04.013
Goldfarb RJ, Groves DI (2015) Orogenic gold: common or evolving fluid and metal sources through time. Lithos 233:2–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2015.07.011
Goldfard RJ, Groves DI, Gardoll S (2001) Orogenic gold and geologic time: a global synthesis. Ore Geol Rev 18:1–75
Goscombe BD, Passchier CW (2003) Asymmetric boudins as shear sense indicators—an assessment from field data. J Struct Geol 25(4):575–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8141(02)00045-7
Groves DI (1993) The crustal continuum model for late-Archaean lode-gold deposits of the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia. Mineral Deposita 28(6):366–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02431596
Groves DI, Phillips GN, Ho SE, Houstoun SM, Standing CA (1987) Craton-scale distribution of Archean greenstone gold deposits; predictive capacity of the metamorphic model. Econ Geol 82(8):2045–2058. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.82.8.2045
Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Gebre-Mariam M, Hagemann SG, Robert F (1998) Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed classification in the context of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geol Rev 13(1):7–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(97)00012-7
Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Knox-Robinson CM, Ojala J, Gardoll S, Yun GY, Holyland P (2000) Late-kinematic timing of orogenic gold deposits and significance for computer-based exploration techniques with emphasis on the Yilgarn Block, Western Australia. Ore Geol Rev 17(1):1–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(00)00002-0
Groves DI, Goldfarb RJ, Santosh M (2016) The conjunction of factors that lead to formation of giant gold provinces and deposits in non-arc settings. Geosci Front 7(3):303–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.07.001
Groves DI, Santosh M, Goldfarb RJ, Zhang L (2018) Structural geometry of orogenic gold deposits: implications for exploration of world-class and giant deposits. Geosci Front 9(4):1163–1177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.01.006
Groves DI, Santosh M, Zhang L (2020) A scale-integrated exploration model for orogenic gold deposits based on a mineral system approach. Geosci Front 11(3):719–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.12.007
Hoskin PWO, Schaltegger U (2003) The composition of zircon and igneous and metamorphic petrogenesis. Rev Mineral Geochem 53(1):27–62. https://doi.org/10.2113/0530027
Houketchang Bouyo M, Penaye J, Barbey P, Toteu SF, Wandji P (2013) Petrology of high-pressure granulite facies metapelites and metabasites from Tcholliré and Banyo regions: geodynamic implication for the Central African Fold Belt (CAFB) of north-central Cameroon. Precambrian Res 224:412–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2012.09.025
Kankeu B, Greiling RO (2006) Magnetic fabrics (AMS) and transpression in the Neoproterozoic basement of Eastern Cameroon (Garga-Sarali area). Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen :263–287. https://doi.org/10.1127/njgpa/239/2006/263
Kankeu B, Greiling RO, Nzenti JP (2009) Pan-African strike–slip tectonics in eastern Cameroon—magnetic fabrics (AMS) and structure in the Lom basin and its gneissic basement. Precambrian Res 174(3):258–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2009.08.001
Knight JB, Mortensen JK, Morison SR (1999) Lode and placer gold composition in the Klondike District, Yukon Territory, Canada; implications for the nature and genesis of Klondike placer and lode gold deposits. Econ Geol 94(5):649–664. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.94.5.649
Kolb J, Rogers A, Meyer FM (2005) Relative timing of deformation and two-stage gold mineralization at the Hutti Mine, Dharwar Craton, India. Mineral Deposita 40(2):156–174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-005-0475-y
Linthout K (1984) Alkali-zirconosilicates in peralkaline rocks. Contrib Mineral Petrol 86(2):155–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00381842
Mériaud N, Jébrak M (2017) From intrusion-related to orogenic mineralization: the Wasamac deposit, Abitibi Greenstone Belt, Canada. Ore Geol Rev 84:289–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2017.01.021
Milesi JP, Toteu SF, Deschamps Y, Feybesse JL, Lerouge C, Cocherie A, Tchameni R, Moloto-A-Kenguemba G, Kampunzu HAB, Nicol N, Duguey E, Leistel JM, Saint-Martin M, Ralay F, Heinry C, Doumnang Mbaigane JC, Chene F, Monthel J, Boutin P, Rolin P (2004) Geology and Major Ore Deposits of Central Africa. BRGM, Orleans
Milesi JP, Toteu SF, Deschamps Y, Feybesse JL, Lerouge C, Cocherie A, Penaye J, Tchameni R, Moloto-A-Kenguemba G, Kampunzu HAB, Nicol N, Duguey E, Leistel JM, Saint-Martin M, Ralay F, Heinry C, Bouchot V, Doumnang Mbaigane JC, Kanda Kula V, Chene F, Monthel J, Boutin P, Cailteux J (2006) An overview of the geology and major ore deposits of Central Africa: explanatory note for the 1:4,000,000 map “Geology and major ore deposits of Central Africa.” J Afr Earth Sci 44(4):571–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.016
Ngako F, Jegouzo P, Nzenti JP (1991) Le cisaillement centre camerounais. Rôle structural et géodynamique dans l’orogenèse panafricaine. C r Acad sci, Sér 2, Méc phys chim sci univers sci terre 313(4):457–463
Ngako V, Affaton P, Nnange JM, Njanko T (2003) Pan-African tectonic evolution in central and southern Cameroon: transpression and transtension during sinistral shear movements. J Afr Earth Sci 36(3):207–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(03)00023-X
Ngako V, Njonfang E, Aka FT, Affaton P, Nnange JM (2006) The North–South Paleozoic to Quaternary trend of alkaline magmatism from Niger–Nigeria to Cameroon: complex interaction between hotspots and Precambrian faults. J Afr Earth Sci 45(3):241–256
Ngatcha RB, Okunlola OA, Suh CE, Ateh KI, Hofmann A (2019) Petrochemical characterization of Neoproterozoic Colomine granitoids, SE Cameroon: implications for gold mineralization. Lithos 344–345:175–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2019.06.028
Ngoniri Hamdja A, Dadjo Djomo H, Ngnotue T, Ayonta Kenne P, Mbianya G, Ganno S, Nzenti JP (2021) Zircon trace element geochemistry and Ti-in-Zircon thermometry of the Ngazi-Tina Pan-African post-collisional granitoids, Adamawa Cameroon. Int J Geosci 12(4):307–328. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2021.124017
Ngounouno I, Déruelle B, Montigny R, Demaiffe D (2006) Les camptonites du mont Cameroun, Cameroun, Afrique. Compt Rendus Geosci 338(8):537–544
Nguimatsia Dongmo FW, Chapman RJ, Bolarinwa AT, Yongue RF, Banks DA, Olajide-Kayode JO (2019) Microchemical characterization of placer gold grains from the Meyos-Essabikoula area, Ntem complex, southern Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sci 151:189–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.12.006
Njanko T, Nédélec A, Affaton P (2006) Synkinematic high-K calc-alkaline plutons associated with the Pan-African Central Cameroon shear zone (W-Tibati area): petrology and geodynamic significance. J Afr Earth Sci 44(4):494–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.11.016
Njonfang E, Ngako V, Moreau C, Affaton P, Diot H (2008) Restraining bends in high temperature shear zones: the “Central Cameroon Shear Zone”, Central Africa. J Afr Earth Sci 52(1):9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.03.002
Njonfang E, Nono A, Kamgang P, Ngako V, Tchoua FM (2011) Cameroon Line alkaline magmatism (central Africa): a reappraisal. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 478:173–192
Nkoumbou C, Barbey P, Yonta-Ngouné C, Paquette J-L, Villiéras F (2014) Pre-collisional geodynamic context of the southern margin of the Pan-African fold belt in Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sci 99:245–260
Nomo Negue E, Tchameni R, Vanderhaeghe O, Sun F, Barbey P, Tekoum L, Tchunte PMF, Eglinger A, Fouotsa NAS (2017) Structure and LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb dating of syntectonic plutons emplaced in the Pan-African Banyo-Tcholliré shear zone (central north Cameroon). J Afr Earth Sci 131:251–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.04.002
Nzenti JP, Kapajika B, Wörner G, Lubala TR (2006) Synkinematic emplacement of granitoids in a Pan-African shear zone in Central Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sci 45(1):74–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.01.005
Omang BO, Suh CE, Lehmann B, Vishiti A, Chombong NN, Fon AN, Egbe JA, Shemang EM (2015) Microchemical signature of alluvial gold from two contrasting terrains in Cameroon. J Afr Earth Sci 112:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.09.004
Parfenoff A (Alexandre), Pomerol C, Tourenq J (1970) Minerals in grains: methods of study and determination
Penaye J, Toteu SF, Tchameni R, Van Schmus WR, Tchakounté J, Ganwa A, Minyem D, Nsifa EN (2004) The 2.1 Ga West central African belt in Cameroon: extension and evolution. J Afr Earth Sci 39(3–5):159–164
Rubatto D, Hermann J (2007) Experimental zircon/melt and zircon/garnet trace element partitioning and implications for the geochronology of crustal rocks. Chem Geol 241(1):38–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2007.01.027
Saha-Fouotsa AN, Vanderhaeghe O, Barbey P, Eglinger A, Tchameni R, Zeh A, Tchunte PF, Nomo EN (2019) The geologic record of the exhumed root of the Central African Orogenic Belt in the central Cameroon domain (Mbé–Sassa-Mbersi region). J Afr Earth Sci 151:286–314
Sanni ZJ, Toyin A, Ibrahim A, Ayinla HA (2016) Provenance studies through petrography and heavy mineral analysis of part of Agbaja-Lokoja formation, Bida basin, NW Nigeria. 1 18(1):203–212. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijs.v18i1
Schmus V, Oliveira EP, Filho AF d S, Toteu SF, Penaye J, Guimarães IP (2008) Proterozoic links between the Borborema Province, NE Brazil, and the Central African Fold Belt. Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ 294(1):69–99. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP294.5
Soba D, Michard A, Toteu SF, Norman DI, Penaye J (1991) Données géochronologiques nouvelles (Rb-Sr, U-Pb et Sm-Nd) sur la zone mobile panafricaine de l’Est du Cameroun: âge protérozoïque supérieur de la série de Lom. Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences Série 2, Mécanique, Physique, Chimie, Sciences de l’univers. Sci Terre 312(12):1453–1458
Suh CE, Lehmann B, Mafany GT (2006) Geology and geochemical aspects of lode gold mineralization at Dimako–Mboscorro, SE Cameroon. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 6(4):295–309
Sulieman MM, Ibrahim IS, Elfaki JT, Dafa-Allah MS (2015) Origin and distribution of heavy minerals in the surficial and subsurficial sediments of the alluvial Nile River terraces
Takodjou Wambo J d, Ganno S, Afahnwie Ngambu A, Negue E, Ondoa J, Nzenti JP (2016) Use of Landsat 7 ETM+ data for the geological structure interpretation: case study of the Ngoura-Colomines area, Eastern Cameroon. J Geosci Geomatics 4:61–72. https://doi.org/10.12691/jgg-4-3-3
Takodjou Wambo JD, Ganno S, Djonthu Lahe YS, Kouankap Nono GD, Fossi DH, Tchouatcha MS, Nzenti JP (2018) Geostatistical and GIS analysis of the spatial variability of alluvial gold content in Ngoura-Colomines area, Eastern Cameroon: Implications for the exploration of primary gold deposit. J Afr Earth Sci 142:138–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.03.015
Takodjou Wambo JD, Pour AB, Ganno S, Asimow PD, Zoheir B, Salles R d R, Nzenti JP, Pradhan B, Muslim AM (2020) Identifying high potential zones of gold mineralization in a sub-tropical region using Landsat-8 and ASTER remote sensing data: a case study of the Ngoura-Colomines goldfield, eastern Cameroon. Ore Geol Rev 122:103530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103530
Tata E, Suh CE, Vishiti A, Shemang EM, Fon AN, Ateh KI, Chombong NN (2019) Wallrock alteration categories and their geochemical signatures in gold-bearing Neoproterozoic granitoids, Batouri gold district, southeastern Cameroon. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 19(3):269–288. https://doi.org/10.1144/geea2016-017
Tchakounté J, Eglinger A, Toteu SF, Zeh A, Nkoumbou C, Mvondo-Ondoa J, Penaye J, de Wit M, Barbey P (2017) The Adamawa-Yadé domain, a piece of Archaean crust in the Neoproterozoic Central African Orogenic belt (Bafia area, Cameroon). Precambrian Res 299:210–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2017.07.001
Tchameni R, Pouclet A, Penaye J, Ganwa AA, Toteu SF (2006) Petrography and geochemistry of the Ngaoundéré Pan-African granitoids in Central North Cameroon: implications for their sources and geological setting. J Afr Earth Sci 44(4):511–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.11.017
Thompson JFH, Sillitoe RH, Baker T, Lang JR, Mortensen JK (1999) Intrusion-related gold deposits associated with tungsten-tin provinces. Mineral Deposita 34(4):323–334
Toteu SF, Van Schmus WR, Penaye J, Nyobe JB (1994) U· Pb and Sm· N edvidence for Eburnian and Pan-African high-grade metamorphism in cratonic rocks of southern Cameroon. Precambrian Res 67(3–4):321–347
Toteu SF, Van Schmus RW, Penaye J, Michard A (2001) New U-Pb and Sm–Nd data from North-Central Cameroon and its bearing on the Pre–Pan–African history of Central Africa. Precambr Res 108:45–73
Toteu SF, Penaye J, Djomani YP (2004) Geodynamic evolution of the Pan-African belt in central Africa with special reference to Cameroon. Can J Earth Sci 41(1):73–85
Toteu SF, Penaye J, Deloule E, Van Schmus WR, Tchameni R (2006) Diachronous evolution of volcano-sedimentary basins north of the Congo craton: insights from U–Pb ion microprobe dating of zircons from the Poli, Lom and Yaoundé Groups (Cameroon). J Afr Earth Sci 44(4–5):428–442
Townley BK, Hérail G, Maksaev V, Palacios C, de Parseval P, Sepulveda F, Orellana R, Rivas P, Ulloa C (2003) Gold grain morphology and composition as an exploration tool: application to gold exploration in covered areas. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 3(1):29–38
Vishiti A, Suh CE, Lehmann B, Shemang EM, Ngome NLJ, Nshanji NJ, Chinjo FE, Mongwe OY, Egbe AJ, Petersen S (2018) Mineral chemistry, bulk rock geochemistry, and S-isotope signature of lode-gold mineralization in the Bétaré Oya gold district, south-east Cameroon. Geol J 53(6):2579–2596
Vishiti A, Etame J, Suh CE (2019) Features of gold-bearing quartz veins in an artisanal mining-dominated terrain, Batouri gold district, Eastern region of Cameroon. Episodes J Int Geosci 42(3):199–212
Wang J, Hattori KH, Li J, Stern CR (2008) Oxidation state of Paleozoic subcontinental lithospheric mantle below the Pali Aike volcanic field in southernmost Patagonia. Lithos 105(1):98–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2008.02.009
Youngson JH, Craw D (1999) Variation in placer style, gold morphology, and gold particle behavior down gravel bed-load rivers; an example from the Shotover/Arrow-Kawarau-Clutha River system, Otago, New Zealand. Econ Geol 94(5):615–633
Zhu Y, An F, Feng W, Zhang H (2016) Geological evolution and huge ore-forming belts in the core part of the Central Asian metallogenic region. J Earth Sci 27(3):491–506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-016-0673-7
Zoheir B, Emam A, Abdel-Wahed M, Soliman N (2019) Multispectral and radar data for the setting of gold mineralization in the South Eastern Desert, Egypt. Remote Sens 11(12):1450. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11121450
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their critical and constructive comments on the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: François Roure
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nomo Negue, E., Takodjou Wambo, J.D., Yamgouot Ngounouno, F. et al. Searching gold origin through litho-structural analysis and morphological characterization of alluvial gold nuggets in the Guiwa-Yangamo area (Batouri goldfield, Eastern Cameroon). Arab J Geosci 14, 1973 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-07799-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-07799-5