Abstract
Objectives
Alexithymia, a trait defined by difficulties identifying and describing emotional feelings and overly concrete thinking, is a known risk factor for psychopathology. Given recent evidence that therapeutic constructs based on Buddhist concepts are positively related to emotional self-awareness and mental health, the present study examined the relationship between one such construct, self-compassion, and alexithymia as well as empathy and mood in a sample of young Australian adults.
Methods
Participants were 253 young adults aged 18–30 years who were recruited from two Australian universities. They were administered validated measures of alexithymia, self-compassion, and empathy via a survey-hosting website.
Results
Relationships among variables were as expected: alexithymia was negatively correlated with self-compassion and empathy, and the latter two variables were positively correlated with each other. After controlling for relevant covariates, alexithymia was the strongest (negative) predictor of self-compassion in a hierarchical regression model. Both alexithymia and self-compassion explained variance in negative mood (depression, anxiety, stress) in a second regression. Of the six subcomponents of self-compassion, only self-judgement was significant.
Conclusions
Further research is needed on alexithymia as a risk factor in young adults and the potential role of self-compassion in mitigating such risk.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aust, S., Härtwig, E. A., Heuser, I., & Bajbouj, M. (2013). The role of early emotional neglect in alexithymia. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 5, 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027314.
Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., & Taylor, G. J. (1994a). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-I: Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(94)90005-1.
Bagby, R., Taylor, G. J., & Parker, J. D. (1994b). The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale—II. Convergent, discriminant, and concurrent validity. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38, 33–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(94)90006-x.
Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., & Taylor, G. J. (2020). Twenty-five years with the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.109940.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1993). Multitrait-multimethod matrices in consumer research: critique and new developments. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2, 143–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80022-8.
Bakker, A. M., Cox, D. W., Hubley, A. M., & Owens, R. L. (2019). Emotion regulation as a mediator of self-compassion and depressive symptoms in recurrent depression. Mindfulness, 10, 1169–1180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1072-3.
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00.
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test revised version: a study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021963001006643.
Beddoe, A. E., & Murphy, S. O. (2004). Does mindfulness decrease stress and foster empathy among nursing students? Journal of Nursing Education, 43, 305–312. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20040701-07.
Birnie, K., Speca, M., & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Exploring self-compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Stress and Health, 26, 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.1305.
Boellinghaus, I., Jones, F. W., & Hutton, J. (2014). The role of mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation in cultivating self-compassion and other-focused concern in health care professionals. Mindfulness, 5, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0158-6.
Brooks, M., Kay-Lambkin, F., Bowman, J., & Childs, S. (2012). Self-compassion amongst clients with problematic alcohol use. Mindfulness, 3, 308–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0106-5.
Carhart-Harris, R. L., Bolstridge, M., Day, C. J., Rucker, J., Watts, R., Erritzoe, D. E., et al. (2018). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: six-month follow-up. Psychopharmacology, 235, 399–408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4771-x.
Cruise, K., & Becerra, R. (2018). Alexithymia and problematic alcohol use: a critical update. Addictive Behaviors, 77, 232–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.09.025.
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology, 44, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113.
Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual-differences in empathy – evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113.
Diedrich, A., Grant, M., Hofmann, S. G., Hiller, W., & Berking, M. (2014). Self-compassion as an emotion regulation strategy in major depressive disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2014.05.006.
Dundas, I., Binder, P., Hansen, T. G., & Stige, S. H. (2017). Does a short self-compassion intervention for students increase healthy self-regulation? A randomized control trial. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 58, 443–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12385.
Evren, C., Evren, B., Dalbudak, E., Ozcelik, C., & Oncu, F. (2009). Childhood abuse and neglect as a risk factor for alexithymia in adult male substance dependent inpatients. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 41, 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2009.10400677.
Finlay-Jones, A. L., Rees, C. S., & Kane, R. T. (2015). Self-compassion, emotion regulation and stress among Australian psychologists: testing an emotion regulation model of self-compassion using structural equation modeling. PLoS One, 10(7), e0133481. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133481.
Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (2006). The mentalization-focused approach to self-pathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 544–576. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712986.ch3.
Franz, M., Popp, K., Schaefer, R., Sitte, W., Schneider, C., Hardt, J., et al. (2008). Alexithymia in the German general population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 43, 54–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0265-1.
Gilbert, P. (2009). The compassionate mind: a new approach to the challenge of life. London: Constable & Robinson.
Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion focused therapy. London: Routledge.
Gilbert, P. (2014). The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 6–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12043.
Gilbert, P. and Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Overview and pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.507.
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Gibbons, L., Chotai, S., Duarte, J., & Matos, M. (2011). Fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness, and self-criticism. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 85, 374–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2011.02046.x.
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Duarte, C., Matos, M., Kolts, R., Stubbs, J., … Basran, J. (2017). The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others. Journal of Compassionate Healthcare, 4:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40639-017-0033-3.
Grynberg, D., Luminet, O., Corneille, O., Grèzes, J., & Berthoz, S. (2010). Alexithymia in the interpersonal domain: a general deficit of empathy? Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 845–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.013.
Guttman, H., & Laporte, L. (2002). Alexithymia, empathy, and psychological symptoms in a family context. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 448–455. https://doi.org/10.1053/comp.2002.35905.
Hayes, S. C., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017). The third wave of cognitive behavioral therapy and the rise of process-based care. World Psychiatry, 16, 245–246. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20442.
Hayes, S. C., Follette, V. M., & Linehan, M. N. (2004). Mindfulness and acceptance: expanding the cognitive behavioural tradition. New York: Guilford.
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006.
Hintikka, J., Honkalampi, K., Koivumaa-Honkanen, H., Antikainen, R., Tanskanen, A., Haatainen, K., & Viinamäki, H. (2004). Alexithymia and suicidal ideation: a 12-month follow-up study in a general population. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45, 340–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.06.008.
Jørgensen, M.M., Zachariae, R., Skytthe, A., & Kyvik, K. (2007). Genetic and environmental factors in alexithymia: A population-based study of 8,785 Danish twin pairs. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 76, 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1159/000107565.
Krieger, T., Berger, T., & Holtforth, M. (2016). The relationship of self-compassion and depression: cross-lagged panel analyses in depressed patients after outpatient therapy. Journal of Affective Disorders, 202, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.032.
Lopez, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., & Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the self-compassion Scale’s total score: self-compassion versus self-criticism. PLoS One, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940.
Lovibond, S. H., & Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the depression anxiety stress scales (2nd ed.). Sydney: Psychology Foundation.
Lykins, E. L. B., & Baer, R. A. (2009). Psychological functioning in a sample of long-term practitioners of mindfulness meditation. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 226–241. https://doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.23.3.226.
Lyvers, M., Hinton, R., Gotsis, S., Roddy, M., Edwards, E., & Thorberg, F. A. (2014a). Traits linked to executive and reward systems functioning in clients undergoing residential treatment for substance dependence. Personality & Individual Differences, 70, 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.004.
Lyvers, M., Makin, C., Toms, E., Thorberg, F. A., & Samios, C. (2014b). Trait mindfulness in relation to alexithymia, emotion regulation, mood and everyday executive functioning. Mindfulness, 5, 619–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0213-y5.
Lyvers, M., Simons, O., Hayes, A., & Thorberg, F. A. (2014c). Drinking motives, alcohol expectancies and alexithymia in young adult social drinkers. Journal of Substance Use, 19, 44–47. https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2012.734538.
Lyvers, M., Kohlsdorf, S. M., Edwards, M. S., & Thorberg, F. A. (2017). Alexithymia and mood: recognition of emotion in self and others. American Journal of Psychology, 130, 83–92. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.1.0083.
Lyvers, M., McCann, K., Coundouris, S., Edwards, M. S., & Thorberg, F. A. (2018). Alexithymia in relation to alcohol use, emotion recognition, and empathy: the role of externally oriented thinking. American Journal of Psychology, 131, 41. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.131.1.0041.
Lyvers, M., Mayer, K., Needham, K., & Thorberg, F. A. (2019). Parental bonding, adult attachment, and theory of mind: a developmental model of alexithymia and alcohol-related risk. Journal of Clinical Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22772.
Macbeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring self-compassion in a meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003.
Mason, O., Tyson, M., Jones, C., & Potts, S. (2005). Alexithymia: its prevalence and correlates in a British undergraduate sample. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 78, 113–125. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608304X21374.
Mattila, A. K., Salminen, J. K., Nummi, T., & Joukamaa, M. (2006). Age is strongly associated with alexithymia in the general population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 629–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.04.013.
McGillivray, L., Becerra, R., & Harms, C. (2016). Prevalence and demographic correlates of alexithymia: a comparison between Australian psychiatric and community samples. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73, 76–87. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22314.
Mehrabian, A. (2000). Manual for the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES). Available from Albert Mehrabian; 1130 Alta Mesa Road, Monterey, CA, USA 93940.
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: structure, dynamics and change. New York: Guilford.
Moreno, F. A., Wiegand, C. B., Taitano, E. K., & Delgado, P. L. (2005). Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 1735–1740. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n1110.
Moriguchi, Y., Decety, J., Ohnishi, T., Maeda, M., Mori, T., Nemoto, K., et al. (2007). Empathy and judging other’s pain: an fMRI study of alexithymia. Cerebral Cortex, 17, 2223–2234. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhl130.
Muris, P., & Petrocchi, N. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta-analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 24(2), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2005.
Neff, K. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: an alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032.
Neff, K. D. (2003b). Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027.
Neff, K. (2004). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 9, 27–37.
Neff, K. (2008). Self-compassion: moving beyond the pitfalls of a separate self-concept. In H. A. Wayment & J. J. Bauer (Eds.), Decade of behavior. Transcending self-interest: psychological explorations of the quiet ego (pp. 95–105). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11771-009.
Neff, K. (2011). Self-compassion. The proven power of being kind to yourself. New York: Harper Collins.
Neff, K. D. (2015). The Self-Compassion Scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7, 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3.
Neff, K. D., & McGhee, P. (2010). Self-compassion and psychological resilience among adolescents and young adults. Self and Identity, 9, 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860902979307.
Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity, 12, 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649546.
Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., & Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2007). An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 908–916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002.
Neff, K. D., Whittaker, T. A., & Karl, A. (2017). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in four distinct populations: is the use of a total scale score justified? Journal of Personality Assessment, 99, 596–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2016.1269334.
Neumann, D. L., Chan, R. C., Boyle, G. J., Wang, Y., & Westbury, H. R. (2015). Measures of empathy: self-report, behavioral, and neuroscientific approaches. In G. J. Boyle, D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 257–289). San Diego: Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-386915-9.00010-3.
Norman, H., Marzano, L., Coulson, M., & Oskis, A. (2018). Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on alexithymia: a systematic review. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 22, 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2018-300029.
Onur, E., Alkin, T., Sheridan, M. J., & Wise, T. N. (2013). Alexithymia and emotional intelligence in patients with panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder. Psychiatric Quarterly, 84, 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-012-9246-y.
Öst, L. (2008). Efficacy of the third wave of behavioral therapies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 296–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2007.12.005.
Panayiotou, G., Leonidou, C., Constantinou, E., Hart, J., Rinehart, K. L., Sy, J. T., & Björgvinsson, T. (2015). Do alexithymic individuals avoid their feelings? Experiential avoidance mediates the association between alexithymia, psychosomatic, and depressive symptoms in a community and a clinical sample. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 56, 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.09.006.
Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (1993). Alexithymia and the recognition of facial expressions of emotion. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 59, 197–202. https://doi.org/10.1159/000288664.
Prkachin, G. C., Casey, C., & Prkachin, K. M. (2009). Alexithymia and perception of facial expressions of emotion. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 412–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.11.010.
Rendon, K. P. (2006). Understanding alcohol use in college students: a study of mindfulness, self-compassion and psychological symptoms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. Available: https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/2907.
Reniers, R. L., Corcoran, R., Völlm, B. A., Mashru, A., Howard, R., & Liddle, P. F. (2012). Moral decision-making, ToM, empathy and the default mode network. Biological Psychology, 90, 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.03.009.
Ross, S., Bossis, A., Guss, J., Agin-Liebes, G., Malone, T., …, … & Schmidt, B.L. (2016). Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30, 1165–1180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881116675512.
Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2002). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. New York: Guilford.
Singer, J. L. (2006). Imagery in psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Spreng, R. N., McKinnon, M. C., Mar, R. A., & Levine, B. (2009). The Toronto Empathy Questionnaire: scale development and initial validation of a factor-analytic solution to multiple empathy measures. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802484381.
Stallman, H. M. (2010). Psychological distress in university students: a comparison with general population data. Australian Psychologist, 45, 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050067.2010.482109.
Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. A. (1997). Disorders of affect regulation: alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thorberg, F. A., Young, R. M., Sullivan, K. A., & Lyvers, M. (2009). Alexithymia and alcohol use disorders: a critical review. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.016.
Thorberg, F. A., Young, R. M., Sullivan, K. A., & Lyvers, M. (2011a). Parental bonding and alexithymia: a meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 26, 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.09.010.
Thorberg, F. A., Young, R., Sullivan, K. A., Lyvers, M., Connor, J. P., & Feeney, G. F. X. (2011b). Alexithymia, craving and attachment in a heavy drinking population. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 427–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.12.016.
Thorberg, F. A., Young, R., Sullivan, K. A., Lyvers, M., Hurst, C., et al. (2016). A prospective mediational study on the stability of alexithymia among alcohol-dependent outpatients in cognitive-behavioral therapy. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 30, 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000135.
Tolmunen, T., Heliste, M., Lehto, S. M., Hintikka, J., Honkalampi, K., & Kauhanen, J. (2011). Stability of alexithymia in the general population: an 11-year follow-up. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52, 536–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.09.007.
Vanheule, S., Desmet, M., Meganck, R., & Bogaerts, S. (2007). Alexithymia and interpersonal problems. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20324.
Velde, J. V., Servaas, M. N., Goerlich, K. S., Bruggeman, R., Horton, P., Costafreda, S. G., & Aleman, A. (2013). Neural correlates of alexithymia: a meta-analysis of emotion processing studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37, 1774–1785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.008.
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y., Ku, T., & Shaffer, P. A. (2011). Attachment, self-compassion, empathy, and subjective well-being among college students and community adults. Journal of Personality, 79, 191–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00677.x.
Zackheim, L. (2007). Alexithymia: the expanding realm of research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 63, 345–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.08.011.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
ML designed and executed the study, conducted data analyses, and wrote the manuscript. AR assisted with the design of the study, collected the data, and assisted with the data analyses and writing. FT collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethics Approval
This research was approved by the Bond University Human Research Ethics Committee and the Griffith University Human Research Ethics Committee. The research was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lyvers, M., Randhawa, A. & Thorberg, F.A. Self-compassion in Relation to Alexithymia, Empathy, and Negative Mood in Young Adults. Mindfulness 11, 1655–1665 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01379-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01379-6