Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Genetic doping: WADA we do about the future of ‘cheating’ in sport?

  • Article
  • Published:
The International Sports Law Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Due to developments in science and biotechnology, the concept of ‘gene doping’ is emerging as the number one threat to fair play in sport. This procedure, which involves the manipulation of one’s natural genetic characteristics in order to enhance athletic ability, has been banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency since 2003. Given the irreversible and potentially undetectable nature of this nascent form of enhancement, it is clear that gene doping poses one of the toughest challenges that anti-doping authorities have yet to face. By adopting an inter-disciplinary approach to the issue that focuses on the scientific, legal, practical and ethical issues associated with this pre-emptive prohibition of gene doping, this article arrives at a somewhat inflammatory and provocative conclusion: it might be time for sport’s stakeholders to consider allowing—and regulating to a safe level—the use of genetic modification in sport. The future of cheating in sport is upon us, and the time to act is now.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Former director at the National Centre for Human Genome and co-discoverer of the structure of DNA (alongside Francis Crick) in 1953.

  2. Mottram (2015, pp. 21–23); Matthews (2005, pp. 137–144).

  3. Dimeo (2007, p. 130).

  4. See Anderson (2018), noting that gene doping is a ‘21st-century means of cheating in sport’.

  5. Custer (2007, p. 185).

  6. Pound’s introductory comments at the Banbury Workshop are helpfully printed in Schneider and Friedmann (2006, pp. 66–72).

  7. McCrory (2003, p. 192); International Olympic Committee (2002). From 2004 onwards, WADA assumed responsibility for publishing and updating the Prohibited List in sport.

  8. Munthe (2000).

  9. van Hilvoorde et al. (2007, p. 186); Aschwanden (2000).

  10. National Human Genome Research Institute (2018).

  11. Wright (2006, p. 334).

  12. Harridge and Velloso (2009, p. 378).

  13. Sporadic references to germ-line modification are made where appropriate (such as in Chapter 3.2).

  14. World Anti-Doping Agency (2018a).

  15. Polcz and Lewis (2016, p. 415); Battery et al. (2011, p. 494).

  16. Barton-Davies et al. (1998); Lee et al. (2004).

  17. See generally Schuelke et al. (2004).

  18. Schjerling (2005, pp. 23–24); Lippi and Guidi (2004).

  19. Schjerling (2005, pp. 25–26).

  20. Jones et al. (2002).

  21. van der Gronde et al. (2013, p. 678).

  22. Boxing provides a particularly interesting case study because scientific evidence has suggested that manipulation of the DREAM gene could lead to the ability to feel less pain caused by injury. See Cheng and Penninger (2003).

  23. See Unal and Unal (2004, p. 358).

  24. Haisma and de Hon (2006, pp. 259–260).

  25. Wells (2008, p. 624).

  26. van der Gronde et al. (2013, p. 671).

  27. Ho (1998, p. 212); Azzazy (2005, p. 961).

  28. Hacein-Bey-Abina et al. (2002).

  29. Wells (2008, p. 624).

  30. Wells (2009, p. 169).

  31. Reiss and Straughan (1996, p. 37).

  32. Artioli et al. (2007, p. 350).

  33. Fischetto and Bermon (2013, p. 968); Sinn et al. (2005).

  34. Gatzidou et al. (2009, p. 42).

  35. Wang et al. (2013).

  36. Friedmann and Hoffman (2009, p. 246) (noting the reports of patients who developed cancer because of the retrovirus insertions).

  37. Heinz and Mashreghi (2017); Kaiser (2015).

  38. Polcz and Lewis (2018, p. 9).

  39. Ginn et al. (2018, p. 4).

  40. Steiner (2011, p. 88).

  41. ESPN (2015).

  42. Murray (2017, p. 465).

  43. Miah (2005, p. 43) (citing David Powell, Spectre of Gene Doping Raises its Head as Athletes see Possibilities (2001) The Times, London).

  44. McKanna and Toriello (2010). See also Murray (2009a, p. 143) (stating that the ‘imminence of genetic enhancement appears to be greatly exaggerated’).

  45. See, for example, Friedmann et al. (2010, p. 647) (discussing the allegations that a Chinese genetics laboratory offered athletes the chance to genetically modify themselves before the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games).

  46. Reynolds (2007).

  47. Schneider and Friedmann (2006, p. 37).

  48. World Anti-Doping Agency (2008).

  49. See generally Berthelot et al. (2015); Desgorces et al. (2008).

  50. Todd and Todd (2009, p. 65) (highlighting that ‘[f]ans likes to see record lifts and our lifters like to make record lifts’).

  51. Miah (2004a, p. 54).

  52. For background, see Fotheringham (2017).

  53. Ritchie (2015, p. 280).

  54. Ostrander et al. (2009); Azzazy and Mansour (2007, pp. 951–952).

  55. Brzezianska et al. (2014, p. 253).

  56. Fischetto and Bermon (2013, pp. 973–974).

  57. Ibid. However, c/f Guescini et al. (2007).

  58. Brzezianska et al. (2014, p. 255); Baoutina et al. (2008).

  59. International Olympic Committee (2016).

  60. Hamlyn (2001).

  61. See generally Baoutina et al. (2010).

  62. Beiter et al. (2011, p. 228).

  63. Fischetto and Bermon (2013, p. 974).

  64. Wells (2008, p. 629). See also the discussion of Finnish skier Eero Maentyranta in Chapter 4.2.

  65. Jakobsson et al. (2006).

  66. CAS 94/129, USA Shooting & Quigley v UIT, para 34.

  67. Fore (2010, p. 81).

  68. Sottas et al. (2011, p. 971); Robinson et al. (2011).

  69. Schmalzer (2009, pp. 690–691) (paraphrasing one French official).

  70. On this point, see Chapter 3.2.

  71. Munthe (2005, p. 112).

  72. Miah (2004a, p. 145).

  73. See generally Simon et al. (2018, chapter 4).

  74. van Hilvoorde (2005, p. 94).

  75. Farrey (2017); Conn (2017). See also the recent and tragic passing of 18-year-old snowboarder Ellie Soutter, which her father attributed to the exorbitant levels of pressure imposed upon children in high-level sport: BBC (2018).

  76. Donovan (2009, p. 119).

  77. Hoberman (2009, p. 7).

  78. Holt and Sonksen (2008, p. 543).

  79. Mehlman (2009, p. 220).

  80. See generally Tamburrini (2005, pp. 86–87).

  81. However, note the recent reports from the genetic sequencing giant Illumina that it may soon be able to sequence an entire human genome for as little as $100: Keshavan (2017).

  82. Custer (2007, p. 204).

  83. World Anti-Doping Agency (2015), Article 2.5 (tampering with doping control); Article 2.6 (possession of a prohibited substance/method). See also Article 3.2 where it is stated that ‘[f]acts related to anti-doping rule violations may be established by any reliable means’ [emphasis added].

  84. CAS 2004/O/645, USADA v Montgomery.

  85. Ibid, para 36. However, see the comments made in CAS 2015/A/4059, WADA v Thomas Bellchambers et al, AFL and ASDA where the CAS panel, at para 105, refused to accept that there is ‘no material difference between proof beyond a reasonable doubt and proof of comfortable satisfaction’. The dictum in Montgomery, they argue, was case specific.

  86. CAS 2004/A/651, French v Australian Sports Commission & Cycling Australia. See also USADA v Leogrande, AAA Panel Decision dated 1 December 2008 (admission of doping, alongside clear circumstantial evidence, was enough to establish an ADRV).

  87. USADA v Collins, AAA Panel Decision dated 9 December 2004 suggests that it might.

  88. Bellchambers (See n85), para 144.

  89. CAS 2004/0/649, USADA v Gaines. See also USADA v Armstrong (Decision of USADA on disqualification and ineligibility, dated 10 October 2012).

  90. McLaren (2006, pp. 198–203).

  91. See Knight (2004). BALCO, a San Francisco-based company run by Victor Conte, was accused of supplying designer steroids to a number of high-profile UK and US athletes. For background see Fainaru-Wada and Williams (2006).

  92. Scott-Elliott (2014).

  93. Dimeo and Moller (2018, p. 72); Bloom (2018).

  94. Knowles (2007, p. 246).

  95. See generally Mallea (2014; O’Mahony 2008).

  96. Wilson (2009, pp. 152–153).

  97. Friedmann and Hoffman (2009, pp. 242–243).

  98. van Hilvoorde et al. (2007, p. 191).

  99. Schneider and Friedmann (2006, pp. 29–31).

  100. Ibid. See also Hacein-Bey-Abina et al. (2003).

  101. Steiner (2011, p. 65); Juhn (2003, p. 929).

  102. Gao et al. (2004).

  103. Momaya et al. (2017, p. 484).

  104. Ibid.

  105. Miller et al. (2016, p. 279); Schneider and Friedmann (2006, p. 24).

  106. Franks (2014); c/f Fore 2010, p. 86 (noting that genetic enhancement could ‘put a tremendous strain on other body parts essential to movement such as tendons and ligaments’).

  107. Simon (2016, pp. 98–99).

  108. See generally Okrent (2011).

  109. Coffey (1975, pp. 196–198).

  110. Savulescu et al. (2004, p. 669).

  111. Cooper (2012, pp. 220–221).

  112. van der Gronde et al. (2013, p. 673).

  113. Cooper (2012, p. 227).

  114. Slavicek (2008, p. 7).

  115. Knowles (2007, p. 246).

  116. Although the ‘Goldman dilemma’ is a ‘significant piece of evidence’ that remains ‘one of the most cited results in the anti-doping literature’, some authors have questioned its credibility. For example, Connor et al. 2013 highlight various weaknesses in the work including: the wording of the questions, the use of the question method, generalisability over different times and contexts, and no comparable measure of acceptance among the general population. See also Woolf et al. (2017).

  117. Goldman et al. (1984, p. 32).

  118. Connor and Mazanov (2009, pp. 871–872).

  119. For an excellent and engaging discussion of this ‘game theory’ as applied to law, see Farnsworth (2007, pp. 100–109).

  120. See generally Haugen (2004).

  121. Schneider and Friedmann (2006, p. 47).

  122. Anderson (2013, p. 152).

  123. For background on Fuentes and the surrounding ‘Operacion Puerto’, see Hardie (2011, p. 160).

  124. Dimeo and Moller (2018, pp. 151–153); Schjerling (2005, p. 29) (noting that ‘physicians may… be pressed to allow the use to go too far to achieve the maximal effect’).

  125. Green (2009, pp. 84–85).

  126. Juengst (2009, p. 184).

  127. Schneider (2005, p. 36).

  128. This is a slightly reworked example taken from Custer (2007, pp. 205–206).

  129. World Anti-Doping Agency (2018b). The other three criteria are that (1) significant health problems would arise without the substance; (2) there is no reasonable therapeutic alternative; and (3) necessity of use is not a consequence of using another prohibited substance.

  130. Dimeo and Moller (2018, p. 102); Fotheringham (2000).

  131. The question of how long the ban would—and should—be is discussed shortly.

  132. Hamilton (2006, p. 40). See also, at pp. 39–40, Hamilton’s discussion of ‘Tommy John surgery’ which can also be used to enhance athletic performance.

  133. Lewis (2013, p. 733).

  134. Saletan (2005).

  135. Miah (2010, p. 224).

  136. See Miah (2004a, p. 95); Schneider and Friedmann (2006, p. 87).

  137. Filipp (2007, p. 434).

  138. WADA (See n14), section S8.

  139. Campos et al. (2003); Saugy et al. (2006, p. i14).

  140. CAS OG/98/002, Rebagliati v IOC, para 26.

  141. See generally Houlihan (2002, pp. 91–92, 110).

  142. Schneider and Friedmann (2006, pp. 33–34).

  143. Westbury (2017). See also Ingle (2018) who highlights the dubious science behind Chris Froome’s recent exoneration for high levels of salbutamol in 2017.

  144. Viret (2015, p. 445).

  145. Sinex and Chapman (2015).

  146. Karp (2011).

  147. Loland and Caplan (2008, p. 75); see also Loland and Murray (2007, p. 195).

  148. See the most recent discussion in Murray (2018, pp. 139–144).

  149. WADA (See n83), Article 4.3.1.

  150. Ibid, Article 4.3.1.1 - 4.3.1.3.

  151. Miah (2004a, p. 36).

  152. Ibid.

  153. Hoberman (1992, p. 104).

  154. Sigman (2008, p. 133).

  155. Lin and Allhoff (2008, pp. 252–254).

  156. Steiner (2011, p. 69).

  157. See generally Mundie and Jurejko (2017).

  158. Stefani (2012, p. 14) (noting that the suit has ‘15% less drag than conventional swimwear fabric’); Foster et al. (2012, p. 717).

  159. Miah (2004a, p. 98).

  160. Murray (2018, p. 166). See also, at p. 56, where he states that ‘the line between “natural” and “unnatural” can be tough to see at times’.

  161. Kaebnick (2013).

  162. Murray (2018, p. 166). He uses concepts such as ‘organic’, ‘rational’, ‘voluntary’ and ‘person’ to illustrate his point.

  163. Ibid, p. 167.

  164. President’s Council on Bioethics (2003).

  165. Steiner (2011, p. 71). However, c/f Siprashvili and Khavari 2004, pp. 97–98.

  166. Custer (2007, p. 208).

  167. Quigley (See n66), para 15.

  168. Flint (2008, pp. 835–836).

  169. WADA (See n83) 11.

  170. Miah (2004a, p. 166).

  171. Anderson (2010, pp. 126–127).

  172. Demonstrating that one bore ‘No Significant Fault or Negligence’ for their genetic modification under Article 10.5 WADC is also another possibility, but it is perhaps a less attractive one for athletes because, unlike under Article 10.4, it does not necessarily lead to an automatic elimination of the period of ineligibility. In sum, the degree of fault is assessed under Article 10.5.

  173. CAS 2006/A/1025, Puerta v ITF, para 11.4.1.

  174. CAS 2009/A/1296, ITF v Gasquet.

  175. See also the more recent example of The Football Association v Livermore, 8 September 2015, where a footballer was able to avoid a ban after he successfully attributed his ingestion of cocaine to a recent family bereavement.

  176. WADA (See n83) 63.

  177. The refusal to allow Article 10.4 to operate in such scenarios is to cater for those situations where an associate agrees to ‘take the fall’ for an athlete by claiming to have spiked their food or drink. See CAS 2002/A/432, D v FINA, para 9.3.11. For a more recent application which neatly highlights the strictness of this test, see CAS OG 16/25, WADA v Narsingh Yadav & NADA.

  178. McArdle (2015, p. 300) [emphasis added].

  179. See CAS 2005/C/976 & 986, FIFA & WADA, Advisory Opinion, para 73.

  180. CAS 2006/A/1041, Vassilev v FIBT & BBTF.

  181. CAS 2005/A/990, Pobyedonostsev v IIHF. For commentary on this case, see David (2017, pp. 390–391).

  182. Ibid, para 36.

  183. WADA (See n83), Article 3.1.

  184. See Chapter 4.2.

  185. This is also a solution proposed by Anderson (2016, pp. 265–266).

  186. See text to n266. Given that WADA is a private foundation with no authority to target companies and individuals who have not submitted to sports regulations, such cooperation would be key.

  187. Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee (2018).

  188. Noakes (2006, p. 289).

  189. Gardiner et al. (2012, p. 68).

  190. Craik (2011, p. 73).

  191. Quinn (2002, p. 186).

  192. Craik (2011, p. 72).

  193. Miah (2004a, p. xviii).

  194. Sherwin and Schwartz (2005); Chadwick and Wilson (2005).

  195. Magdalinski and Brooks (2002).

  196. See, for example, Miah (2004a, pp. 53–54) (stating that media attention surrounding gene doping has been ‘sensationalistic and has sought to ground hysteria about the possibility for creating superhumans in sport’).

  197. Miah (2004b).

  198. Tamburrini and Tannsjo (2005, p. 1).

  199. Sandel (2007, p. 26).

  200. President’s Council on Bioethics (See n164), p. 142.

  201. See, for example, Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2002).

  202. See Schneider 2005, p. 36 (arguing that ‘the way in which the public will treat gene transfer technology if and when it becomes readily available is unknown’).

  203. Food Standards Agency (2018); Smithers (2013).

  204. Lopez (2017).

  205. Polcz and Lewis (2018). For an interesting survey of professional athletes’ opinions on the topic, see Dierickx et al. (2012).

  206. Polcz and Lewis (2018, pp. 5, 39–40).

  207. Ibid, pp. 25–26.

  208. Ibid, p. 32.

  209. The citizens of East Germany, China and Russia, for example, may all have radically different views on the potential legalisation of gene doping in their respective countries.

  210. Miah (2004a, p. 177).

  211. See text to n137.

  212. See generally Breivik (2005, p. 175).

  213. Posner (2008, p. 1734).

  214. See Griffith-Jones (1997, p. vii).

  215. Dimeo and Moller (2018, p. 24).

  216. Ibid, pp. 29–33.

  217. Custer (2007, p. 197).

  218. Ashworth (2013, p. 77).

  219. Ibid.

  220. Miah (2004a, p. 171).

  221. Polcz and Lewis (2018, p. 33). Interestingly, 29% were in favour of legalisation when the substance was simply referred to as a “drug”.

  222. World Anti-Doping Agency (2018c); Catlin and Murray 1996, p. 237 (stating that a ban on PEDs is necessary to ensure that ‘all athletes compete on a level playing field’).

  223. Smith and Stewart (2008, p. 124).

  224. Petersen and Kristensen (2009, p. 97).

  225. Hadhazy (2008).

  226. Dabholkar (2013, p. 58).

  227. Seaton (2005).

  228. Savulescu et al. (2004, p. 667).

  229. Simon (2016, p. 103).

  230. Savulescu et al. (2004, p. 667).

  231. Juengst (2009, p. 197); Simon (2016, pp. 126–129).

  232. Frias (2016, p. 107).

  233. Juengst (2009, pp. 198–199).

  234. Varley et al. (2018, p. 16).

  235. Tannsjo (2005).

  236. Ibid, p. 68; van Hilvoorde (2005, pp. 98–99) (stating that ‘admiration of athletes will… be concentrated on the sacrifices endured to actualize their genetic predisposition’).

  237. See generally Tamburrini (2007).

  238. Murray (2018, p. 16).

  239. For further insight into this issue, see Knapton (2015); Bouchard (2004).

  240. Murray (2009b, p. 230).

  241. American Academy of Neurology (2014).

  242. On this point, see also the related discussion surrounding the existence of the so-called brain doping amongst athletes, a technique that uses electrical stimulation to help make it easier to learn new sporting skills and reduce fatigue. If this were possible, it would mean that even admired personality traits could be modified independently from the question of genetics. See Reardon 2016.

  243. Murray (2009b, p. 228); Murray (2018, p. 22) (discussing the role that ‘life experiences’ may have on an athlete’s ability to persevere through hardship).

  244. See text to n22.

  245. Allison (2005, p. 153).

  246. Loland (2005) skilfully outlines this distinction in his so-called vulnerability thesis.

  247. Tamburrini (2007, p. 261).

  248. van Hilvoorde (2005, p. 96).

  249. Carr (2000, p. 2).

  250. Greif and Merz (2007, p. 87); Mehlman (2009, p. 212).

  251. Miah (2004a, p. 36).

  252. Cooper (2012, p. 220).

  253. Murray (2018, p. 75).

  254. Bacalao-Fleury (2011, p. 207).

  255. Onywera (2009, p. 106).

  256. Fore (2010, p. 93).

  257. Athletes who exhibit levels of gene expression that are above what could be considered ‘safe’ should be prevented from competing.

  258. International Association of Athletics Federations (2018).

  259. See Murray (2018, p. 14) (noting that in American football ‘wide receivers can weigh half as much as offensive linemen, but they need to be fast, elusive, have great hands and the courage to catch a pass knowing they’re likely to get hit’).

  260. Ibid, p. 30.

  261. Ibid.

  262. The Economist (2016); BBC (2017); Murray (2018, pp. 61–66).

  263. Murray (2009b, pp. 227–228).

  264. Buckley (2008, p. 90).

  265. Anderson (2010, p. 167).

  266. As Anderson (2016, p. 266) concludes, this approach would be an integrated one ‘favouring statutory “gateways” of cooperation between sports bodies and drug, law and custom enforcement agencies’.

  267. Associated Press (1998).

  268. Schneider and Friedmann (2006, p. 69).

References

  • Allison L (2005) Citius, altius, fortius ad absurdum: biology, performance and sportsmanship in the twenty-first century. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 149–157

    Google Scholar 

  • American Academy of Neurology (2014) Low tolerance for pain? The reason may be in your genes. https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/PressRelease/1269. Accessed 30 Nov 2018

  • Anderson J (2010) Modern sports law: a textbook. Hart, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J (2013) Doping, sport and the law: time for repeal of prohibition? Int J Law Context 9(2):135–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J (2016) The juridification and criminalisation of doping: time to revive the spirit of sport? In: Haas U, Healey D (eds) Doping in sport and the law. Hart, Oxford, pp 251–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson J (2018) The future? Gene-edited athletes, eSports and the end of contact sport. https://www.irishexaminer.com/archives/2018/0510/sport/the-future-gene-edited-athletes-esports-and-the-end-of-contact-sport-470454.html. Accessed 15 Nov 2018

  • Artioli G, Hirata R, Lancha A (2007) Gene therapy, genetic doping and sport: fundaments and implications for the future. Rev Bras Med Esporte 13(5):349–354

    Google Scholar 

  • Aschwanden C (2000) Gene cheats. New Sci 15:24–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth A (2013) Principles of criminal law, 7th edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Associated Press (1998) Cycling: a call for doping changes. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/27/sports/cycling-a-call-for-doping-changes.html. Accessed 1 Dec 2018

  • Azzazy H (2005) Doping in the recombinant era: strategies and counterstrategies. Clin Biochem 38(11):959–965

    Google Scholar 

  • Azzazy H, Mansour M (2007) Rogue athletes and recombinant DNA technology: challenges for doping control. Analyst 132(10):951–957

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacalao-Fleury C (2011) Brazil’s olympic trials: an overview of the intellectual property challenges posed by the 2016 Rio de Janeiro games. U Ill J L Tech Pol 1:191–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Baoutina A et al (2008) Developing strategies for detection of gene doping. J Gene Med 10(1):3–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Baoutina A et al (2010) Gene doping detection: evaluation of approach for direct detection of gene transfer using erythropoietin as a model system. Gene Ther 17(8):1022–1032

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton-Davies E et al (1998) Viral mediated expression of insulin-like growth factor I blocks the aging-related loss of skeletal muscle function. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 95(26):15603–15607

    Google Scholar 

  • Battery L, Solomon A, Gould D (2011) Gene doping: olympic genes for olympic dreams. J R Soc Med 104(12):494–500

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC (2017) Is para-sport classification fit for purpose? https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/disability-sport/41802313. Accessed 29 Nov 2018

  • BBC (2018) Ellie Soutter death: father criticises pressure on athletes. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-surrey-45023187. Accessed 5 Dec 2018

  • Beiter T et al (2011) Direct and long-term detection of gene doping in conventional blood samples. Gene Ther 18(3):225–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Berthelot G et al (2015) Has athletic performance reached its peak? Sports Med 45(9):1263–1271

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom B (2018) WADA warns doping whistleblowers about dangers of going public. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/2018/02/08/wada-warns-doping-whistleblowers-dangers-going-public. Accessed 14 Aug 2018

  • Bouchard T (2004) Genetic influence on human psychological traits: a survey. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 13(4):148–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Breivik G (2005) Sport, gene doping and ethics. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 165–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Brzezianska E, Domanska D, Jegier A (2014) Gene doping in sport—perspectives and risks. Biol Sport 31(4):251–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley J (2008) Classification and the games. In: Gilbert K, Schantz O (eds) The paralympic games: empowerment or side show?. Meyer & Meyer, Maidenhead, pp 90–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos D, Yonamine M, Moreau R (2003) Marijuana as doping in sports. Sports Med 33(6):395–399

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr C (2000) On fairness. Ashgate, Aldershot

    Google Scholar 

  • Catlin D, Murray T (1996) Performance-enhancing drugs, fair competition, and olympic sport. JAMA 276(3):231–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick R, Wilson S (2005) Bio-amazons—a comment. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 205–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng H, Penninger J (2003) When the DREAM is gone: from basic science to future prospectives in pain management and beyond. Expert Opin Ther Targets 7(2):249–263

    Google Scholar 

  • Coffey T (1975) The long thirst: prohibition in America, 1920–1933. Norton, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Conn D (2017) ‘Football’s Biggest Issue’: the struggle facing boys rejected by academies. https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/06/football-biggest-issue-boys-rejected-academies. Accessed 5 Dec 2018

  • Connor J, Mazanov J (2009) Would you dope? A general population test of the Goldman dilemma. Br J Sports Med 43(11):871–872

    Google Scholar 

  • Connor J, Woolf J, Mazanov J (2013) Would they dope? Revisiting the Goldman dilemma. Br J Sports Med 47(11):697–700

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper C (2012) Run, swim, throw, cheat: the science behind drugs in sport. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Craik J (2011) The fastskin revolution: from human fish to swimming androids. Cult Unbound 3(1):71–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Custer K (2007) From mice to men: genetic doping in international sports. Hastings Int Comp Law Rev 30:181–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Dabholkar S (2013) A need to intercede? The international olympic committee and intersexuality. Int Sports Law J 13(1):55–59

    Google Scholar 

  • David P (2017) A guide to the world anti-doping code: the fight for the spirit of sport, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Desgorces F et al (2008) From Oxford to Hawaii: ecophysiological barriers limit human progression in ten sport monuments. PLoS ONE 3(11):e3653

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierickx K, Deckx S, Hens K (2012) The ethics of gene doping: a survey of elite athletes and academic professionals. J Clin Res Bioeth 3(2):136–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee (2018) Combatting doping in sport: fourth report of session 2017–2019, pp. 42–43. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/366/366.pdf. Accessed 6 Nov 2018

  • Dimeo P (2007) A history of drug use in sport 1876–1976: beyond good and evil. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimeo P, Moller V (2018) The anti-doping crisis in sport: causes, consequences, solutions. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Donovan R (2009) Toward an understanding of factors influencing athletes’ attitudes about performance-enhancing technologies: implications for ethics education. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 111–140

    Google Scholar 

  • ESPN (2015) WADA wants funding to keep pace with Rooney-style wage rises. http://www.espn.co.uk/olympics/story/_/id/13310936/wayne-rooney-earns-much-world-anti-doping-agency-annual-budget-which-struggling-catch-drugs-cheats-due-lack-funds. Accessed 11 Sept 2018

  • Fainaru-Wada M, Williams L (2006) Game of shadows. Penguin, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Farnsworth W (2007) The legal analyst: a toolkit for thinking about the law. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrey T (2017) Have adults ruined children’s sport? https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-42329564. Accessed 5 Dec 2018

  • Filipp F (2007) Is science killing sport? Gene therapy and its possible abuse in doping. EMBO Rep 8(5):433–435

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischetto G, Bermon S (2013) From gene engineering to gene modulation and manipulation: Can we prevent or detect gene doping in sports? Sports Med 43(10):965–977

    Google Scholar 

  • Flint C (2008) Drug use in sport: the regulatory framework. In: Lewis A, Taylor J (eds) Sport: law and practice, chapter E1, 2nd edn. Tottel Publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Food Standards Agency (2018) Genetically modified foods. https://www.food.gov.uk/safety-hygiene/genetically-modified-foods. Accessed 10 Nov 2018

  • Fore J (2010) Moving beyond “gene doping”: preparing for genetic modification in sport. Va J L Tech 15(1):76–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster L, James D, Haake S (2012) Influence of full body swimsuits on competitive performance. Procedia Eng 34:712–717

    Google Scholar 

  • Fotheringham W (2000) Boardman quitting to take drugs. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/story/0,3604,380917,00.html. Accessed 10 Nov 2018

  • Fotheringham A (2017) The end of the road: the festina affair and the tour that almost wrecked cycling. Bloomsbury, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Franks T (2014) Gene doping: sport’s biggest battle? https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-25687002. Accessed 10 Nov 2018

  • Frias F (2016) The defining components of the cyborg: cyborg-athletes, fictional or real? Sport Ethics Philos 10(1):97–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann T, Hoffman E (2009) Genetic doping in sport: applying the concepts and tools of gene therapy. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 241–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann T, Rabin O, Frankel M (2010) Gene doping and sport. Science 327(5966):647–648

    Google Scholar 

  • Gao G et al (2004) Erythropoietin gene therapy leads to autoimmune anemia in macaques. Blood 103(9):3300–3302

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardiner S et al (2012) Sports law, 4th edn. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatzidou E, Gatzidou G, Theocharis S (2009) Genetically transformed world records: a reality or in the sphere of fantasy? Med Sci Monit 15(2):41–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginn S et al (2018) Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2017: an update. J Gene Med 20(5):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman B, Bush P, Klatz R (1984) Death in the locker room: steroids in sport. Icarus Press, South Bend

    Google Scholar 

  • Green G (2009) The role of physicians, scientists, trainers, coaches, and other nonathletes in athletes’ drug use. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 81–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Greif K, Merz J (2007) Current controversies in the biological sciences: case studies of policy challenges from new technologies. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffith-Jones D (1997) Law and the business of sport. Butterworths, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Guescini M et al (2007) Fine needle aspiration coupled with real-time PCR: a painless methodology to study adaptive functional changes in skeletal muscle. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17(5):383–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Hacein-Bey-Abina S et al (2002) Sustained correction of x-linked severe combined immunodeficiency by ex vivo gene therapy. N Engl J Med 346(16):1185–1193

    Google Scholar 

  • Hacein-Bey-Abina S et al (2003) LMO2-associated clonal T cell proliferation in two patients after gene therapy for SCID-XI. Science 302(5644):415–419

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadhazy A (2008) What makes michael Phelps so good? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-makes-michael-phelps-so-good1/. Accessed 24 Oct 2018

  • Haisma H, de Hon O (2006) Gene doping. Int J Sports Med 27(4):257–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton M (2006) Elective performance enhancement surgery for athletes: Should it be resisted? Acta Univ Palacki Olous Gymn 36(2):39–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamlyn P (2001) Gene genie casts ominous shadow. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/drugsinsport/3018080/Gene-genie-casts-ominous-shadow.html. Accessed 23 Aug 2018

  • Hardie M (2011) It’s not about the blood! Operacion Puerto and the end of modernity. In: McNamee M, Moller V (eds) Doping and anti-doping policy in sport: ethical, legal and social perspectives. Routledge, London, pp 160–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Harridge S, Velloso C (2009) IGF-I and GH: potential use in gene doping. Growth Horm IGF Res 19(4):378–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Haugen K (2004) The performance-enhancing drug game. JSE 5(1):67–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinz G, Mashreghi M (2017) CRISPR-Cas system as molecular scissors for gene therapy. Z Rheumatol 76(1):46–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho M (1998) Genetic engineering—dream or nightmare? The brave new world of bad science and big business. Gateway, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoberman J (1992) Mortal engines: the science of performance and the dehumanization of sport. Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoberman J (2009) Putting doping into context: historical and cultural perspectives. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 3–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt R, Sonksen P (2008) Growth hormone, IGF-I and insulin and their abuse in sport. Br J Pharmacol 154(3):542–556

    Google Scholar 

  • Houlihan B (2002) Dying to win: doping in sport and the development of anti-doping policy, 2nd edn. Council of Europe, Strasbourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingle S (2018) Sport’s war on drugs is being lost on many fronts. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jul/09/wada-anti-doping?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other. Accessed 9 Sept 2018

  • International Association of Athletics Federations (2018) IAAF response to open letter from the Women’s Sports Foundation and Athlete Ally. https://www.iaaf.org/news/press-release/iaaf-response-to-womens-sports-foundation-and. Accessed 17 Aug 2018

  • International Olympic Committee (2002) WADA and IOC publish new list of banned substances and methods. https://www.olympic.org/news/wada-and-ioc-publish-new-list-of-banned-substances-and-methods-1. Accessed 16 Nov 2018

  • International Olympic Committee (2016) Olympic movement medical code, Chapter 1.3. https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/Who-We-Are/Commissions/Medical-and-Scientific-Commission/Olympic-Movement-Medical-Code-31-03-2016.pdf#_ga=2.33760802.2007459810.1529939714-1593240879.1529939714. Accessed 27 Oct 2018

  • Jakobsson J et al (2006) Large differences in testosterone excretion in Korean and Swedish men are strongly associated with a UDP-glucuronosyl transferase 2B17 polymorphism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91(2):687–693

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones A, Montgomery H, Woods D (2002) Human performance: a role for the ACE genotype? Exerc Sport Sci Rev 30(4):184–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Juengst E (2009) Annotating the moral map of enhancement: gene doping, the limits of medicine, and the spirit of sport. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 175–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Juhn M (2003) Popular sports supplements and ergogenic aids. Sports Med 33(12):921–939

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaebnick G (2013) Humans in nature: the world as we find it and the world as we create it. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser J (2015) CRISPR helps heal mice with muscular dystrophy. http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/12/crispr-helps-heal-mice-muscular-dystrophy. Accessed 4 Oct 2018

  • Karp H (2011) Novak Djokovic’s secret: sitting in a pressurized egg. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111904787404576532854267519860. Accessed 3 Dec 2018

  • Keshavan M (2017) Illumina says it can deliver a $100 genome—soon. https://www.statnews.com/2017/01/09/illumina-ushering-in-the-100-genome. Accessed 10 Aug 2018

  • Knapton S (2015) Intelligence genes discovered by scientists. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/12061787/Intelligence-genes-discovered-by-scientists.html. Accessed 3 Dec 2018

  • Knight T (2004) Inside information gives drug investigators shot in the arm. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/athletics/2383957/Inside-information-gives-drug-investigators-shot-in-the-arm.html. Accessed 15 Nov 2018

  • Knowles E (2007) Oxford dictionary of modern quotations, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee S et al (2004) Viral expression of insulin-like growth factor-I enhances muscle hypertrophy in resistance-trained rats. J Appl Physiol 96(3):1097–1104

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis S (2013) Man, machine, or mutant: when will athletes abandon the human body? Jeffrey S Moorad Sports L J 20(2):717–772

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin P, Allhoff F (2008) Untangling the debate: the ethics of human enhancement. Nanoethics 2(3):251–264

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippi G, Guidi G (2004) Gene manipulation and improvement of athletic performances: new strategies in blood doping. Br J Sports Med 38(5):641

    Google Scholar 

  • Loland S (2005) The vulnerability thesis and use of bio-medical technology in sport. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 158–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Loland S, Caplan A (2008) Ethics of technologically constructed hypoxic environments in sport. Scand J Med Sci Sports 18(Suppl 1):70–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Loland S, Murray T (2007) The ethics of the use of technologically constructed high-altitude environments to enhance performances in sport. Scand J Med Sci Sports 17(3):193–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez B (2017) From needle phobia to doping phobia: Can the fear of injections help us understand anti-dopism? Drug Educ Prev Policy 24(3):314–320

    Google Scholar 

  • Magdalinski T, Brooks K (2002) Bride of Frankenstein: technology and the consumption of the female athlete. In: Miah A, Eassom S (eds) Sport technology: history, philosophy and policy. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 195–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Mallea P (2014) The war on drugs: a failed experiment. Dundurn Press, Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews G (2005) America’s first olympics. University of Missouri Press, Missouri

    Google Scholar 

  • McArdle D (2015) ‘Strict liability’ and legal rights: nutritional supplements, ‘intent’ and ‘risk’ in the parallel world of WADA. In: Moller V, Waddington I, Hoberman J (eds) Routledge handbook of drugs and sport. Routledge, London, pp 293–309

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrory P (2003) Super athletes or gene cheats? Br J Sports Med 37(3):192–193

    Google Scholar 

  • McKanna T, Toriello H (2010) Gene doping: the hype and the harm. Pediatr Clin N Am 57(3):719–727

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren R (2006) An overview of non-analytical positive and circumstantial evidence cases in sports. Marq Sports L Rev 16(2):193–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Mehlman M (2009) Genetic enhancement in sport: ethical, legal and policy concerns. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 205–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Miah A (2004a) Genetically modified athletes: biomedical ethics, gene doping and sport. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Miah A (2004) Genetically modified athletes in Athens? Bring them on. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2004/aug/01/athletics.athensolympics20042. Accessed 29 Oct 2018

  • Miah A (2005) Gene doping: the shape of things to come. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 42–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Miah A (2010) Towards the transhuman athlete: therapy, non-therapy and enhancement. Sport Soc 13(2):221–233

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller K et al (2016) Cancer treatment and survivorship statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 66(4):271–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Momaya A, Fawal M, Estes R (2017) Performance-enhancing substances in sports: a review of the literature. In: Caplan A, Parent B (eds) The ethics of sport: essential readings. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 468–493

    Google Scholar 

  • Mottram D (2015) The evolution of doping and anti-doping in sport. In: Mottram D, Chester N (eds) Drugs in sport, 6th edn. Routledge, London, pp 21–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Mundie S, Jurejko J (2017) State of sport: FIFA’s former doctor says painkiller use risks footballers’ health. https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/39333763. Accessed 13 Dec 2018

  • Munthe C (2000) Selected champions: making winners in the age of genetic technology. In: Tannsjo T, Tamburrini C (eds) Values in sport: elitism, nationalism, gender equality, and the scientific manufacturing of winners. Taylor & Francis, Oxford, pp 217–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Munthe C (2005) Ethical aspects of controlling genetic doping. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 107–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray T (2009a) Ethics and endurance-enhancing technologies in sport. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 141–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray T (2009b) In search of an ethics for sport: genetic hierarchies, handicappers general, and embodied excellence. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 225–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray T (2017) Sports enhancement. In: Caplan A, Parent B (eds) The ethics of sport: essential readings. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 459–467

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray T (2018) Good sport: why our games matter—and how doping undermines them. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • National Human Genome Research Institute (2018) Somatic cells. https://www.genome.gov/glossary/index.cfm?id=186. Accessed 1 August 2018

  • Noakes T (2006) Should we allow performance-enhancing drugs in sport? A rebuttal to the article by Savulescu and colleagues. Int J Sports Sci Coach 1(4):289–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2002) The ethics of patenting DNA, paras 3.3–3.7. http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/The-ethics-of-patenting-DNA-a-discussion-paper.pdf. Accessed 16 Aug 2018

  • O’Mahony P (2008) The Irish war on drugs: the seductive folly of prohibition. Manchester University Press, Manchester

    Google Scholar 

  • Okrent D (2011) Last call: the rise and fall of prohibition. Scribner, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Onywera V (2009) East African runners: their genetics, lifestyle and athletic prowess. In: Collins M (ed) Genetics and sport. Karger, Basel, pp 102–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrander E, Huson H, Ostrander G (2009) Genetics of athletic performance. Ann Rev Genomics Hum Genet 10:407–429

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersen T, Kristensen J (2009) Should athletes be allowed to use all kinds of performance-enhancing drugs? A critical note on Claudio M. Tamburrini. J Philos Sport 36(1):88–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Polcz S, Lewis A (2016) CRISPR-Cas9 and the non-germline non-controversy. JLB 3(2):413–425

    Google Scholar 

  • Polcz S, Lewis A (2018) Regulating genetic advantage. Harv J L & Tech (forthcoming). https://law.stanford.edu/publications/regulating-genetic-advantage

  • Posner R (2008) In defense of Prometheus: some ethical, economic, and regulatory issues of sports doping. Duke Law J 57(6):1725–1741

    Google Scholar 

  • President’s Council on Bioethics (2003) Beyond therapy: biotechnology and the pursuit of happiness, p. 122. https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/research/pbc/reports/beyondtherapy/beyond_therapy_final_report_pcbe.pdf. Accessed 27 Oct 2018

  • Quinn B (2002) Techno fashion. Berg, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Reardon S (2016) ‘Brain doping’ may improve athletes’ performance. Nature 531(7594):283–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiss M, Straughan R (1996) Improving nature? The science and ethics of genetic engineering. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds G (2007) Outlaw DNA. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/03/sports/playmagazine/0603play-hot.html. Accessed 20 Sept 2018

  • Ritchie I (2015) Understanding performance-enhancing substances and sanctions against their use from the perspective of history. In: Moller V, Waddington I, Hoberman J (eds) Routledge handbook of drugs and sport. Routledge, London, pp 20–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson N et al (2011) The athlete biological passport: an effective tool in the fight against doping. Clin Chem 57(6):830–832

    Google Scholar 

  • Saletan W (2005) The beam in your eye: if steroids are cheating, why isn’t LASIK? http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/human_nature/2005/04/the_beam_in_your_eye.html?via=gdpr-consent. Accessed 26 Nov 2018

  • Sandel M (2007) The case against perfection. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Saugy M et al (2006) Cannabis and sport. Br J Sports Med 40(Suppl 1):i13–i15

    Google Scholar 

  • Savulescu J, Foddy B, Clayton M (2004) Why we should allow performance enhancing drugs in sport. Br J Sports Med 38(6):666–670

    Google Scholar 

  • Schjerling P (2005) The basics of gene doping. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 19–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmalzer B (2009) A vicious cycle: the biological passport dilemma. Univ Pittsbg Law Rev 70:677–700

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider A (2005) Genetic enhancement of athletic performance. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 32–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider A, Friedmann T (2006) Gene doping in sports: the science and ethics of genetically modified athletes. Elsevier Academic Press, California

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuelke M et al (2004) Myostatin mutation associated with gross muscle hypertrophy in a child. NEJM 350(26):2682–2688

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott-Elliott R (2014) I had to go into hiding, says drug test whistle–blower Renee–Anne Shirley. https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/athletics/i-had-to-go-into-hiding-says-drug-test-whistle-blower-renee-anne-shirley-9203734.html. Accessed 27 Nov 2018

  • Seaton M (2005) What is lance Armstrong’s secret? https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/jul/28/thisweekssciencequestions3. Accessed 20 Oct 2018

  • Sherwin S, Schwartz M (2005) Resisting the emergence of bio-amazons. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 199–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigman S (2008) Are we all dopes? A behavioral law and economics approach to legal regulation of doping in sports. Marq Sports L Rev 19(1):125–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon R (2016) The ethics of sport. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon R, Torres C, Hager P (2018) Fair play: the ethics of sport, 4th edn. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinex J, Chapman R (2015) Hypoxic training methods for improving endurance exercise performance. SHS 4(4):325–332

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinn P, Sauter S, McCray P (2005) Gene therapy progress and prospects: development of improved lentiviral and retroviral vectors—design, biosafety, and production. Gene Ther 12(14):1089–1098

    Google Scholar 

  • Siprashvili Z, Khavari P (2004) Lentivectors for regulated and reversible cutaneous gene delivery. Mol Ther 9(1):93–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Slavicek L (2008) The prohibition era: temperance in the United States. Chelsea House Publishers, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith A, Stewart B (2008) Drug policy in sport: hidden assumptions and inherent contradictions. Drug Alcohol Rev 27(2):123–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Smithers R (2013) Two thirds of British consumers say GM food labelling is important. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jan/09/consumers-gm-food-labelling. Accessed 10 Nov 2018

  • Sottas P et al (2011) The athlete biological passport. Clin Chem 57(7):969–976

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefani R (2012) Olympic swimming gold: the suit or the swimmer in the suit? Significance 9(2):13–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner J (2011) Genetic doping: the Lance Armstrong case as a preview for future regulations. Ariz St U Sports Ent L J 1(2):41–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamburrini C (2005) Educational or genetic blueprints, what’s the difference? In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 82–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamburrini C (2007) After doping, what? The morality of the genetic engineering of athletes. In: Morgan W (ed) Ethics and sports, 2nd edn. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 285–297

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (2005) Introduction: the life sciences and the ethos of sport. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Tannsjo T (2005) Genetic engineering and elitism in sport. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 57–69

    Google Scholar 

  • The Economist (2016) The Rio Paralympics were successful, but the disability classifications are not. https://www.economist.com/game-theory/2016/09/21/the-rio-paralympics-were-successful-but-the-disability-classifications-are-not. Accessed 29 Nov 2018

  • Todd J, Todd T (2009) Reflections on the “parallel federation solution” to the problem of drug use in sport: the cautionary tale of powerlifting. In: Murray T, Maschke K, Wasunna A (eds) Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: ethical, conceptual and scientific issues. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp 44–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Unal M, Unal D (2004) Gene doping in sports. Sports Med 34(6):357–362

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Gronde T et al (2013) Gene doping: an overview and current implications for athletes. Br J Sports Med 47(11):670–678

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hilvoorde I (2005) Sport and genetics: moral and educational considerations regarding ‘athletic predestination’. In: Tamburrini C, Tannsjo T (eds) Genetic technology and sport: ethical questions. Routledge, London, pp 91–104

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hilvoorde I, Vos R, de Wert G (2007) Flopping, klapping and gene doping: dichotomies between ‘natural’ and ‘artificial’ in elite sport. Soc Stud Sci 37(2):173–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Varley I et al (2018) The current use, and opinions of elite athletes and support staff in relation to genetic testing in elite sport within the UK. Biol Sport 35(1):13–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Viret M (2015) Evidence in anti-doping at the intersection of science and law. TMC Asser Press, The Hague

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang W et al (2013) Non-viral gene delivery methods. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 14(1):46–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells D (2008) Gene doping: the hype and the reality. Br J Pharmacol 154(3):623–631

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells D (2009) Gene doping: possibilities and practicalities. In: Collins M (ed) Genetics and sport. Karger, Basel, pp 166–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Westbury I (2017) WADA do about WADA’s bad science? http://www.sportsintegrityinitiative.com/wada-wadas-bad-science/. Accessed 6 Oct 2018

  • Wilson J (2009) Lessons learned from the gene therapy trial for ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency. Mol Genet Metab 96(4):151–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolf J, Mazanov J, Connor J (2017) The Goldman dilemma is dead: what elite athletes really think about doping, winning, and death. Int J Sport Policy Pol 9(3):453–467

    Google Scholar 

  • World Anti-Doping Agency (2008) Saint Petersburg declaration. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/resources/science-medicine/saint-petersburg-declaration. Accessed 2 Aug 2018

  • World Anti-Doping Agency (2015) World anti-doping code. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/resources/the-code/world-anti-doping-code. Accessed 28 July 2018

  • World Anti-Doping Agency (2018a) Prohibited list. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/resources/science-medicine/prohibited-list-documents, section M3. Accessed 17 Aug 2018

  • World Anti-Doping Agency (2018b) Therapeutic use exemption (TUE). https://www.wada-ama.org/en/questions-answers/therapeutic-use-exemption-tue#item-728. Accessed 14 Sept 2018

  • World Anti-Doping Agency (2018c) Athletes. https://www.wada-ama.org/en/athletes Accessed 13 Sept 2018

  • Wright W (2006) Germ-line genetic engineering and the precautionary principle. Chrestomathy 5:333–346

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 44 Athena Road, Stoke-on-Trent, ST1 6RT, UK

    James Brown

Authors
  1. James Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James Brown.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

James Brown was a former LLM Sports Law (with Distinction) graduate from Nottingham Trent University and a former first-class LLB graduate from Keele University.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Brown, J. Genetic doping: WADA we do about the future of ‘cheating’ in sport?. Int Sports Law J 19, 258–280 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-019-00141-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40318-019-00141-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation