Abstract
Until recently, investigation into the mechanisms of mucosal immune protection has been overlooked as an integral component of immune surveillance. The failure to measure B- and T-cell responses in various mucosa-associated tissues and their secretions was complicated by difficulties in the isolation and characterization of mucosal lymphoid cells and in obtaining external secretions. The relevance of investigating mucosal immunity has been accentuated by recent developments, i.e., the failure of conventional vaccines to protect from mucosal pathogens when administered in parenteral sites and by the need for a mucosal vaccine to prevent the sexual transmission of HIV. In this review, we will discuss the nature of the gastrointestinal (GI) immune system and its subsequent manipulation, i.e., for vaccine development, to effect protection to enteric infectious agents. Furthermore, a better understanding of the GI immune system will contribute to the application of mucosal immunity for other tissues that are exposed to ubiquitous pathogens.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
McGhee, J. R., Mestecky, J., Dertzbaugh, M. T., Eldridge, J. H., Hirasawa, M., and Kiyono, H., 1992, The mucosal immune system: From fundamental concepts to vaccine development, Vaccine 10:75–88.
Kiyono, H., Bienenstock, J., McGhee, J. R., and Ernst, P. B., 1992, The mucosal immune system: Features of inductive and effector sites to consider in mucosal immunization and vaccine development, Reg. Immunol. 4:54–62.
Conley, M. E., and Delacroix, D. L., 1987, Intravascular and mucosal immunoglobulin A: Two separate but related systems of immune defense? Ann. Intern. Med. 106:892–899.
Mestecky, J., and McGhee, J. R., 1987, Immunoglobulin A (IgA): Molecular and cellular interactions involved in IgA biosynthesis and immune response, Adv. Immunol. 40:153–245.
Brandtzaeg, P., 1989, Overview of the mucosal immune system, Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 146:13–25.
Mestecky, J., and Russell, M. W., 1986, IgA subclasses, Monogr. Allergy 19:277–301.
Brandtzaeg, P., 1994, Distribution and characteristics of mucosal immunoglobulin-producing cells, in: Handbook of Mucosal Immunology (P. L. Ogra, J. Mestecky, M. E. Lamm, W. Strober, J. R. McGhee, and J. Bienenstock, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 251–262.
Kett, K., Brandtzaeg, P., Radl, J., and Haaijman, J. F., 1986, Different subclass distribution of IgA-producing cells of human lymphoid organs and various secretory tissues, J. Immunol. 136:3631–3635.
Brandtzaeg, P., 1984, Immune functions of human nasal mucosa and tonsils in health and disease, in: Immunology of the Lung and Upper Respiratory Tract (J. Bienenstock, ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 28–95.
Fujihashi, K., McGhee, J. R., Lue, C., Beagley, K. W., Taga, T., Hirano, T., Kishimoto, T., Mestecky, J., and Kiyono, H., 1991, Human appendix B cells naturally express receptors for and respond to interleukin 6 with selective IgAl and IgA2 synthesis, J. Clin. Invest. 88:248–252.
Kilian, M., Mestecky, J., and Russell, M. W., 1988, Defense mechanisms involving Fc-dependent functions of immunoglobulin A and their subversion by bacterial immunoglobulin A proteases, Microbiol. Rev. 52:296–303.
Putnam, F. W., Liu, Y. S., and Low, T. L. K., 1979, Primary structure of human IgAl immunoglobulin. IV. Streptococcal IgAl protease digestion: Fab and Fc fragment and the complete amino acid sequence of the al heavy chain, J. Biol. Chem. 254:2865–2874.
Tomasi, T. B., and Czerwinski, D. S., 1968, The secretory IgA systems, in: Immunological Deficiency Disease in Man (D. Bergsma, ed.), Volume 4, The National Foundation, New York, pp. 270–275.
Krajci, P., Solberg, R., Sanberg, M., Oyen, O., Jahnsen, T, and Brandtzaeg, P., 1989, Molecular cloning of the human transmembrane secretory component (poly-Ig receptor) and its mRNA expression in human tissues, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 158:783–789.
Cornes, J. S., 1965, Number, size, and distribution of Peyer’s patches in the human small intestine. Part 1: The development of Peyer’s patches, Gut 6:225–229.
Cornes, J. S., 1965, Number, size, and distribution of Peyer’s patches in the human small intestine. Part 2: The effect of age on Peyer’s patches, Gut 6:230–233.
Owen, R. L., and Jones, A. L., 1974, Epithelial cell specialization within human Peyer’s patches: An ultrastructural study of intestinal lymphoid follicles, Gastroenterology 66:189–203.
Owen, R. L., 1977, Sequential uptake of horseradish peroxidase by lymphoid follicle epithelium of Peyer’s patch in the normal unobstructed mouse intestine: An ultrastructural study, Gastroenterology 72:440–451.
Bockman, D. E., and Cooper, M. D., 1973, Pinocytosis by epithelium associated with lymphoid follicles in the bursa of Fabricius, appendix, and Peyer’s patches. An electron microscopic study, Am. J. Anat. 136:455–477.
Kato, T., and Owen, R. L., 1994, Structure and function of intestinal mucosal epithelium, in: Handbook of Mucosal Immunology (P. L. Ogra, J. Mestecky, M. E. Lamm, W. Strober, J. R. McGhee, and J. Bienenstock, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 11–26.
Neutra, M. R., Phillips, T. L., Mayer, E. L., and Fishkind, D. J., 1987, Transport of membrane-bound macromolecules by M cells in follicle-associated epithelium of rabbit Peyer’s patch, Cell Tissue Res. 247:537–546.
Wolf, J. L., Kauffman, R. S., Finberg, R., Dambrauskas, R., Fields, B. N., and Trier, J. S., 1983, Determinants of reovirus interaction with the intestinal M cells and absorptive cells of murine intestine, Gastroenterology 85:291–300.
Amerongen, H. M., Weltzin, R., Farnet, C. M., Michetti, P., Haseltine, W. A., and Neutra, M. R., 1991, Transepithelial transport of HIV-1 by intestinal M cells: A mechanism for transmission of AIDS, J. AIDS 4:760–765.
Sicinki, P., Rowinski, J., Warchol, J. R., Jarzabek, Z., Gut, W., Szczgiel, B., Bielecki, K., and Koch, G., 1990, Poliovirus type 1 enters the human host through intestinal Mcells, Gastroenterology 98:56–58.
Weltzin, R. A., Lucia-Jandris, P., Michetti, P., Fields, B. N., and Kraehenbuhl, J. P., 1989, Binding and transepithelial transport of immunoglobulins by intestinal M cells: Demonstration using monoclonal IgA antibodies against enteric viral proteins, J. Cell Biol. 108: 1673–1685.
Nagura, H., Ohtani, H., Masuda, T., Kimura, M., and Nakamura, S., 1991, HLA-DR expression on M cells overlying Peyer’s patches is a common feature of human small intestine, Acta Pathol. Jpn. 41:818–823.
Allan, C. H., Mendrick, D. L., and Trier, J. S., 1993, Rat intestinal M cells contain acidic endosomal-lysosomal compartments and express class II major histocompatibility complex determinants, Gastroenterology 104:698–708.
Brandtzaeg, P., and Bjerke, K., 1990, Immunomorphological characteristics of human Peyer’s patches, Digestion 46:262–273.
Jones, P. P., and Cebra, J. J., 1974, Restriction of gene expression in B lymphocytes and their progeny. III. Endogenous IgA and IgM on the membranes of different plasma cell precursors, J. Exp. Med. 140:966–976.
Butcher, E. C., Rouse, R. V., Coffman, R. L., Nottenburg, C. N., Hardy, R. R., and Weissman, I. L., 1982, Surface phenotype of Peyer’s patch germinal center cells: Implication for the role of germinal centers in B cell differentiation, J. Immunol. 129:2698–2707.
Lebman, D. A., Griffin, P. M., and Cebra, J. J., 1987, Relationship between expression of IgA by Peyer’s patch cells and functional IgA memory cells, J. Exp. Med. 166:1405–1418.
McGhee, J. R., Mestecky, J., Elson, C. O., and Kiyono, H., 1989, Regulation of IgA synthesis and immune responses by T cells and interleukins, J. Clin. Immunol. 9:175–199.
Spalding, D. M., Koopman, W. J., Eldridge, J. L., McGhee, J. R., and Steinman, R., 1983, Accessory cells in murine Peyer’s patch: I. Identification and enrichment of functional dendritic cells, J. Exp. Med. 157:1646–1659.
Spalding, D. M., Williamson, S. I., Koopman, W. J., and McGhee, J. R., 1984, Preferential induction of polyclonal IgA secretion by murine Peyer’s patch dendritic cell-T cell mixtures, J. Exp. Med. 160:941–946.
Kanof, M. E., Strober, W., Fiocchi, C., Zeitz, M., and James, S. P., 1988, CD4 positive Leu-8 negative helper-inducer T cells predominate in the human intestinal lamina propria, J. Immunol 141:3029–3036.
Bull, D. M., and Bookman, M. A., 1977, Isolation and functional characterization of human intestinal mucosal lymphoid cells, J. Clin. Invest. 59:966–974.
Qiao, L., Schürman, G., Betzler, M., and Meuer, S. C., 1991, Functional properties of human lamina propria T lymphocytes assessed with mitogenic monoclonal antibodies, Immunol Res. 10:218–225.
James, S. P., and Zeitz, M., 1994, Human gastrointestinal mucosal T cells, in: Handbook of Mucosal Immunology (P. L. Ogra, J. Mestecky, M. E. Lamm, W. Strober, J. R. McGhee, and J. Bienenstock, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 275–285.
James, S. P., Kwan, W. C., and Sneller, M. C., 1990, T cells in the inductive and effector compartments of the intestinal mucosal immune system of nonhuman primates differ in lymphokine mRNA expression, lymphokine utilization, and regulatory function, J. Immunol 144:1251–1256.
Blier, P., and Bothwell, A., 1987, A limited number of B cell lineages generates the heterogeneity of a secondary immune response, J. Immunol 139:3996–4006.
Weinstein, P. D., and Cebra, J. J., 1991, The preference for switching to IgA expression by Peyer’s patch germinal center B cells is likely due to the intrinsic influence of their micro-environment, J. Immunol. 147:4126–4135.
Liu, Y.-J., Johnson, G. D., Gordon, J., and McLennan, I. C. M., 1992, Germinal centres in T-cell-dependent antibody responses, Immunol Today 13:17–21.
Rouse, R., Ledbetter, J., and Weissman, I. L., 1982, Mouse lymph node germinal centers contain a selected subset of T cells: The helper phenotype, J. Immunol. 128:2243–2246.
Krall, W. J., and Braun, J., 1992, In vivo retroviral marking of antigen-specific B lymphocytes, Semin. Immunol. 4:19–28.
Mega, J., Bruce, M. G., Beagley, K. W., McGhee, J. R., Taguchi, T., Pitts, A. M., Bucy, R. P., Eldridge, J. H., Mestecky, J., and Kiyono, H., 1991, Regulation of mucosal responses by CD4+ T lymphocytes: Effect of anti-L3T4 treatment on the gastrointestinal immune system, Int. Immunol 3:793–805.
Furness, J. B., and Costa, M., 1980, Types of nerves in the enteric nervous system, Neuroscience 5:1–20.
Chang, M. M., and Leeman, S. E., 1971, Amino acid sequence of substance P, Nature New Biol. 232:86–87.
Erspamer, V., 1981, The tachykinin peptide family, Trends Neurosci. 4:267–269.
Nawa, H., Kotani, H., and Nakanishi, S., 1984, Tissue-specific generation of two pre-protachykinin mRNAs from one gene by alternative RNA splicing, Nature 312:729–734.
Helke, C. J., Krause, J. E., Mantyh, P. W., and Bannon, M. J., 1990, Diversity in mammalian tachykinin peptidergic neurons: Multiple peptides, receptors, and regulatory mechanisms, FASEBJ. 4:1606–1615.
Pernow, B., 1983, Substance P, Pharmacol Rev. 35:85–140.
Hershey, A. D., and Krause, J. E., 1990, Molecular characterization of a functional cDNA encoding the rat substance P receptor, Science 247:958–962.
Pascual, D. W., Stanisz, A. M., and Bost, K. L., 1994, Functional aspects of the peptidergic circuit in mucosal immunity, in: Handbook of Mucosal Immunology (P. L. Ogra, J. Mestecky, M. E. Lamm, W. Strober, J. R. McGhee, and J. Bienenstock, eds.), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 203–216.
Bost, K. L., 1993, Expression of the mRNA encoding substance P receptors by activated macrophages, J. Immunol. 150(Part II):54A, #297.
Cook, G. A., Elliott, D., Metwali, A., Blum, A. M., Sandor, M., Lynch, R., and Weinstock, J. V., 1994, Molecular evidence that granuloma T lymphocytes in murine Schistosomiasis mansoni express an authentic substance P (NK-1) receptor, J. Immunol. 152:1830–1835.
van Ginkel, F. W., Bost, K. L., Kiyono, H., McGhee, J. R., and Pascual, D. W., 1994, IL-lα production by the C6 astrocyte cell line is regulated through its substance P (SP) receptor, FASEB J. 8:A247, #1426.
Feiten, D. L., Feiten, S. Y., Bellinger, D. L., Carlson, S. L., Ackerman, K. D., Madden, K. S., Olschowki J. A., and Livnat, S., 1987, Noradrenergic sympathetic neural interactions with the immune system: Structure and function, Immunol. Rev. 100:225–260.
Stead, R. H., Bienenstock, J., and Stanisz, A. M., 1987, Neuropeptide regulation of mucosal immunity, Immunol. Rev. 100:333–359.
Stanisz, A. M., Scicchitano, R., Dazin, P., Bienenstock, J., and Payan, D. G., 1987, Distribution of substance P receptors on spleen and Peyer’s patch T and B cells, J. Immunol. 139: 749–754.
Pascual, D. W., Xu-Amano, J., Kiyono, H., McGhee, J. R., and Bost, K. L., 1991, Substance P acts directly upon cloned B lymphoma cells to enhance IgA and IgM production, J. Immunol. 146:2130–2136.
Pascual, D. W., McGhee, J. R., Kiyono, H., and Bost, K. L., 1991, Neuroimmune modulation of lymphocyte function: I. Substance P enhances immunoglobulin synthesis in LPS activated murine splenic B cells, Int. Immunol. 3:1223–1229.
Pascual, D. W., Bost, K. L., Beagley, K. W., Kiyono, H., and McGhee, J. R., 1995, Substance P promotes Peyer’s patch B and splenic B cell differentiation, in: Advances in Mucosal Immunology (J. Mestecky et al., eds.), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 55–59.
Stanisz, A. M., Befus, D., and Bienenstock, J., 1986, Differential effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide, substance P, and somatostatin on immunoglobulin synthesis and proliferation by lymphocytes from Peyer’s patches, mesenteric lymph nodes, and spleen, J. Immunol. 136:152–156.
Keast, J. R., Furness, J. B., and Costa, M., 1985, Distribution of certain peptide-containing nerve fibres and endocrine cells in the gastrointestinal mucosa in five mammalian species, J. Comp. Neurol. 236:403–422.
Said, S. I., and Mutt, V., 1970, Polypeptide with broad biological activity: Isolation from small intestine, Science 169:1217–1218.
Linder, S., Barkhem, T., Torberg, A., Persson, H., Schalling, M., Hökfelt, T., and Magnusson, G., 1987, Structure and expression of the gene encoding the vasoactive intestinal peptide precursor, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:605–609.
Ishibara, T., Shigemoto, R., Mori, K., Takahashi, K., and Nagata, S., 1992, Functional expression and tissue distribution of a novel receptor for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, Neuron 8:811–819.
Christophe, J., 1993, Type I receptors for PACAP (a neuropeptide even more important than VIP?), Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1154:183–199.
Ottaway, C. A., Lewis, D. L., and Asa, S. L., 1987, Vasoactive intestinal peptide-containing nerves in Peyer’s patches, Brain Behav. Immun. 1:148–158.
Ottaway, C. A., 1987, Selective effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide on the mitogenic response of murine T cells, Immunology 62:291–297.
Ottaway, C. A., and Greenberg, F. R., 1984, Interaction of vasoactive intestinal peptide with mouse lymphocytes: Specific binding and the modulation of mitogen responses, J. Immunol. 132:417–423.
Krco, C. J., Gores, A., and Go, V. L. W., 1986, Gastrointestinal regulatory peptides modulate in vitro immune reactions of mouse lymphoid cells, Clin. Immunol. Immuno-pathol 39:308–318.
Blum, A. M., Mathew, R., Cook, G. A., Metwali, A., Felman, R., and Weinstock, J. V., 1992, Murine mucosal T cells have VIP receptors functionally distinct from those on intestinal epithelial cells, J. Neuroimmunol. 39:101–108.
Elitsur, Y, and Luk, G. D., 1990, Gastrointestinal neuropeptides suppress human colonic lamina propria lymphocyte DNA synthesis, Peptides 11:879–884.
Xu-Amano, J., Aicher, W. K., Taguchi, T., Kiyono, H., and McGhee, J. R., 1992, Selective induction of Th2 cells in murine Peyer’s patches by oral immunization, Int. Immunol. 4:433–445.
Xu-Amano, J., Kiyono, H., Jackson, R., Staats, H. F., Fujihashi, K., Burrows, P. D., Elson, C. O., Pillai, S., and McGhee, J. R., 1993, Helper T cell subsets for immunoglobulin A responses: Oral immunization with tetanus toxoid and cholera toxin as adjuvant selectively induces Th2 cells in mucosa associated tissues, J. Exp. Med. 178:1309–1320.
Jackson, R. J., Fujihashi, K., Xu-Amano, J., Kiyono, H., and McGhee, J. R., 1993, Optimizing oral vaccines: Induction of systemic and mucosal B cell and antibody responses to tetanus toxoid by use of cholera toxin as adjuvant, Infect. Immun. 61:4272–4279.
Xu-Amano, J., Fujihashi, K., Jackson, R., Kiyono, H., and McGhee, J. R., 1994, Helper Th1 and Th2 cell responses following mucosal or systemic immunization with cholera toxin, Vaccine 12:903–911.
Ogra, P. L., and Karzon, D. T., 1969, Distribution of poliovirus antibody in serum, nasopharynx, and alimentary tract following segmental immunization of lower alimentary tract with polio vaccine, J. Immunol. 102:1423–1430.
Bourguin, I., Chardes, T., and Bout, D., 1993, Oral immunization with Toxoplasma gondii antigens in association with cholera toxin induces enhanced protective and cell-mediated immunity in C57BL/6 mice, Infect. Immun. 61:2082–2088.
Fairweather, N. F., Chatfield, S. N., Makoff, A. J., Strugnell, R. A., Bester, J., Maskell, D. J., and Dougan, G., 1990, Oral vaccination of mice against tetanus by use of a live attenuated Salmonella carrier, Infect. Immun. 58:1323–1326.
Yang, D. M., Fairweather, N., Button, K. L., McMaster, W. R., Kahl, L. P., and Liew, F. Y., 1990, Oral Salmonella typhimurium (AroA−) vaccine expressing a major leishmanial surface protein (gp63) preferentially induces T helper 1 cells and protective immunity against leishmaniasis, J. Immunol. 145:2281–2285.
Schodel, F., Milich, D. R., and Will, H., 1990, Hepatitis B virus nucleocapsid/pre-S2 fusion proteins expressed in attenuated Salmonella for oral vaccination, J. Immunol. 145:4317–4321.
Winner, L., Mack, J., Weltzin, R., Mekalanos, J. J., Kraehenbuhl, J. P., and Neutra, M. R., 1991, New model for analysis of mucosal immunity: Intestinal secretion of specific monoclonal immunoglobulin A from hybridoma tumors protects against Vibrio cholerae infection, Infect. Immun. 59:977–982.
Michetti, P., Mahan, M. J., Slauch, J. M., Mekalanos, J. J., and Neutra, M. R., 1992, Monoclonal secretory immunoglobulin A protects mice against oral challenge with the invasive pathogen Salmonella typhimurium, Infect. Immun. 60:1786–1792.
Yap, K. L., Acta, G. L., and McKenzie, I. F. C., 1978, Transfer of specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes protects mice inoculated with influenza virus, Nature 273:238–239.
Zinkernagel, R. M., and Doherty, P. C., 1979, MHC-restricted cytotoxic T cells: Studies on the biological role of polymorphic major transplantation antigens determining T-cell restriction-specificity, function, and responsiveness, Adv. Immunol. 27:51–177.
Marrack, P., and Kappler, J., 1987, The T cell receptor, Science 238:1073–1079.
Ennis, F. A., Yi-Hua, Q., and Schild, G. C., 1982, Antibody and cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses of humans to live and inactivated influenza vaccines, J. Gen. Virol. 58:273–281.
McMichael, A. J., and Askonas, B., 1978, Influenza virus-specific cytotoxic T cell in man: Induction and properties of the cytotoxic cell, Eur. J. Immunol. 8:705–711.
Davies, M. D. J., and Parrott, D. M. W., 1981, Cytotoxic T cells in small intestine epithelial, lamina propria and lung lymphocytes, Immunology 44:367–371.
Nauss, K. M., Pavlina, T. M., Kumar, V., and Newberne, P. M., 1984, Functional characteristics of lymphocytes isolated from the rat large intestine: Response to T-cell mitogens and natural killer cell activity, Gastroenterology 86:468–475.
Ernst, P. B., Befus, A. D., and Bienenstock, J., 1985, Leukocytes in the intestinal epithelium: An unusual immunological compartment, Immunol. Today 6:50–55.
Issekutz, T. B., 1984, The response of gut-associated T lymphocytes to intestinal viral immunization, J. Immunol. 133:2955–2960.
London, S. D., Rubin, D. H., and Cebra, J. J., 1987, Gut mucosal immunization with reovirus serotype l/L stimulated virus-specific cytotoxic T cell precursors as well as IgA memory cells in Peyer’s patches, J. Exp. Med. 165:830–847.
Offit, P. A., and Dudzik, K. I., 1989, Rotavirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes appear at the intestinal mucosal surface after rotavirus infection, J. Virol. 63:3507–3512.
Podack, E. R., and Kupef, A., 1991, T cell effector functions: Mechanisms for delivery of cytotoxicity and help, Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 7:479–504.
Young, L. H. Y., Klavinskis, L. S. D., Oldstone, M. B. A., and Young, J. D. E., 1989, In vivo expression of perform by CD8+ lymphocytes during an acute viral infection, J. Exp. Med. 169:2159–2171.
Liu, C.-C., Steffen, M., King, F., and Young, J. D. E., 1987, Identification, isolation and characterization of a novel cytotoxin in murine cytolytic lymphocytes, Cell 51:393–403.
Trenn, G., Takayama, H., and Sitkovsky, M. V., 1987, Exocytosis of cytolytic granules may not be required for target cell lysis by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, Nature 330:72–74.
Taylor, P. M., Wraith, D. C., and Askonas, B. A., 1985, Control of immune interferon release by cytotoxic T-cell clones specific for influenza, Immunology 54:607–614.
Yamada, Y K., Meager, A., Yamada, A., and Ennis, F. A., 1986, Human interferon alpha and gamma production by lymphocytes during the generation of influenza virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes, J. Gen. Virol 67:2325–2334.
Wong, G. H., Bartlett, P. E., Lewis Clark, I., and McKimm-Breschkin, J.-L., 1985, Interferon-gamma induces the expression of H-2 and la antigens on brain cells, J. Neuroimmunol. 7:255–278.
Nelson, P. J., Geller, R. L., Podack, E., and Bach, F. H., 1992, Molecular events in late stage of T-cell functional maturation, Scand. J. Immunol. 35:311–320.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1996 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pascual, D.W., Kiyono, H., McGhee, J.R. (1996). Mucosal Immunity. In: Paradise, L.J., Bendinelli, M., Friedman, H. (eds) Enteric Infections and Immunity. Infectious Agents and Pathogenesis. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0313-6_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0313-6_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0315-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0313-6
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive