Abstract
Teaching is a demanding profession, with the potential to provide high levels of satisfaction. However, research shows that it can also be stressful: Teachers report multiple sources of chronic stress (including workload, students, parents, and administrators) and symptoms of burnout, such as emotional exhaustion, helplessness, and cynicism; rates of desistence often top 30 %. Studies of teachers’ everyday coping indicate that adaptive coping may provide a buffer and maladaptive coping a risk factor as teachers negotiate these stressors. In fact, developmental models suggest that constructive coping has the potential to transform previously stressful interactions into opportunities for learning and development, contributing to higher quality engagement in teaching, greater satisfaction, and well-being. This chapter explores the promise of mindfulness practices and interventions to aid teachers in developing personal resources that would help them cope more constructively, and thereby provide a pathway toward everyday resilience. First, we present a developmental model depicting the kinds of constructive coping that can promote teacher engagement and learning. Second, we identify multiple points in the process of coping where mindfulness could make an important difference, focusing especially on the mechanisms through which mindfulness could have its salutary effects. We conclude with suggestions for how mindful coping might change students’ experiences in the classroom, since better coping may improve educators’ engagement in teaching and the quality of their relationships with students and classroom management. We hope that the developmental model might provide a framework useful for guiding future studies on mindfulness and teachers’ everyday coping and resilience.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aldwin, C. M. (2007). Stress, coping, and development: An integrative perspective (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 14, 449–463.
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 417–436.
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125–143.
Barrett, K. C., & Campos, J. J. (1991). A diacritical function approach to emotions and coping. In E. M. Cummings, A. L. Greene, & K. H. Karraker (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 21–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bauer, J., Stamm, A., Virnich, K., Wissing, K., Muller, U., Wirsching, M., & Schaarschmidt, U. (2005). Correlation between burnout syndrome and psychological and psychosomatic symptoms among teachers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 79, 199–204.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1476–1487.
Berg, C., Meegan, S., & Deviney, F. (1998). A social-contextual model of coping with everyday problems across the life span. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 22, 239–261.
Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N., Carmody, J., … Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230–241.
Blair, C., & Diamond, A. (2008). Biological processes in prevention and intervention: The promotion of selfregulation as a means of preventing school failure. Development and Psychopathology, 20(03), 899–911.
Blase, J. J. (1986). A qualitative analysis of sources of teacher stress: Consequences for performance. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 13–40.
Boekaerts, M. (2002). Coping with challenge. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 15, 321–326.
Borg, M. G. (1990). Occupational stress in British educational settings: A review. Educational Psychology, 10, 103–126.
Brandtstädter, J. (2006). Action perspectives on human development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.), Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development. (pp. 516-568). W. Damon & R. M. Lerner ((Eds.-in-Chief). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Briner, R., & Dewberry, C. (2007). Staff well-being is key to school success. London, England: Worklife Support/Hamilton House.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.
Campos, J. J., Frankel, C. B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75, 377–394.
Carmody, J., & Baer, R. A. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and well-being in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 23–33.
Case, R., & Griffin, S. (1990). Child cognitive development: The role of central conceptual structures in the development of scientific and social thought. Advances in Psychology, 64, 193–230.
Chambers, R., Gullone, E., & Allen, N. B. (2009). Mindful emotion regulation. An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 560–572.
Chan, D. W. (1998). Stress coping strategies, and psychological distress among secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 145–163.
Chang, M.-L. (2009). An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 193–218.
Coelho, H. F., Canter, P. H., & Ernst, E. (2007). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: Evaluating current evidence and informing future research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 1000–1005.
Coffey, K. A., & Hartman, M. (2008). Mechanisms of action in the inverse relationship between mindfulness and psychological distress. Complementary Health Practice Review, 13(2), 79–91.
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical view. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), Monographs of the society for research in child development (Vol. 59, pp. 73–100).
Compas, B. E. (1993, April). An analysis of “good” stress and coping in adolescence. Paper presented at the 60th meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans.
Compas, B. E. (2006). Psychobiological processes of stress and coping: Implications for resilience in children and adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 226–234.
Compas, B. E. (2009). Coping, regulation, and development during childhood and adolescence. In E. A. Skinner & M. J. Zimmer-Gembeck (Eds.). Coping and the development of regulation. A volume for the series, R. W. Larson & L. A. Jensen (Eds.-in-Chief), New directions in child and adolescent development, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Compas, B. E., Connor, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. (1999). Getting specific about coping: Effortful and involuntary responses to stress in development. In M. Lewis & D. Ramsey (Eds.), Soothing and stress (pp. 229–256). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Diamond, L. M., & Aspinwall, L. G. (2003). Emotion regulation across the life span: An integrative perspective emphasizing self-regulation, positive affect, and dyadic processes. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 125–156.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Guthrie, I. K. (1997). Coping with stress: The roles of regulation and development. In S. A. Wolchik & I. N. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children’s coping: Linking theory and intervention (pp. 41–70). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., Ricard, M., & Wallace, B. A. (2005). Buddhist and psychological perspectives on emotions and well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(2), 59–63.
Evers, W. J. G., Tomic, W., & Brouwers, A. (2004). Burnout among teachers. School Psychology International, 25(2), 131–148.
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190.
Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 839–852.
Folkman, S. (2008). The case for positive emotions in the stress process. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal, 21(1), 3–14.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping. American Psychologist, 55, 647–654.
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1045.
Friedman, I. A. (1995). Student behavior patterns contributing to teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 88(5), 281–289.
Furrer, C. J., Skinner, E. A., & Pitzer, J. R. (2014). The influence of teacher and peer relationships on students’ classroom engagement and everyday resilience. In D. J. Shernoff & J. Bempechat (Eds.), National society for the study of education yearbook. Engaging youth in schools: Empirically-based models to guide future innovations (Vol. 113, pp. 101–123). New York, NY: Teachers’s College, Columbia University.
Garland, E. L. (2007). The meaning of mindfulness: A second-order cybernetics of stress, meta-cognition, and coping. Complementary Health Practice Review, 12(1), 15–30.
Green, S. B., & Ross, M. E. (1996). A theory-based measure of coping strategies used by teachers: The problems in teaching scale. Teaching & Teacher Education, 12, 315–325.
Greeson, J. M. (2009). Mindfulness research update: 2008. Complementary Health Practice Review, 14, 10–18.
Griffith, J., Steptoe, A., & Cropley, M. (1999). An investigation of coping strategies associated with job stress in teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 517–531.
Griva, K., & Joekes, K. (2003). UK teachers under stress: Can we predict wellness on the basis of characteristics of the teaching job? Psychology and Health, 18, 457–471.
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 35–43.
Hargreaves, A. (2000). Mixed emotions: Teachers’ perceptions of their interactions with students. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 811–826.
Hofmann, S. G., Sawyer, A. T., Witt, A. A., & Oh, D. (2010). The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(2), 169.
Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(6), 537–559.
Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2004). Resilient teachers: Resisting stress and burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 7, 399–420.
Innes, J. M., & Kitto, S. (1989). Neuroticism, self-consciousness and coping strategies, and occupational stress in high school teachers. Personal and Individual Differences, 10, 303–312.
Jacobs, S. J., & Blustein, D. L. (2008). Mindfulness as a coping mechanism for employment uncertainty. The Career Development Quarterly, 57(2), 174–180.
Jalongo, M. R., & Heider, K. (2006). Editorial teacher attrition: An issue of national concern. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33, 379–380.
Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013). Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): Results of a randomized controlled trial. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, 374–390.
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to child and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79, 491–525.
Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The experience of work-related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20, 178–187.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York, NY: Bantam Doubleday Dell.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical psychology: Science and practice, 10(2), 144–156.
Kemeny, M. E., Foltz, C., Cavanagh, J. F., Cullen, M., Giese-Davis, J., Jennings, P., … Ekman, P. (2012). Contemplative/emotion training reduces negative emotional behavior and promotes prosocial responses. Emotion, 12(2), 338–350.
Klassen, R. M., Perry, N. E., & Frenzel, A. C. (2012). Teachers’ relatedness with students: An underemphasized component of teachers’ basic psychological needs. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 150–165.
Klatt, M. D., Buckworth, J., & Malarkey, W. B. (2009). Effects of low-dose mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR-ld) on working adults. Health Education & Behavior, 36, 601–614.
Klusmann, U., Kunter, M., Trautwein, U., Luktke, O., & Baumert, J. (2008). Teachers’ occupational well-being and the quality of instruction: The important role of self-regulatory patterns. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 702–715.
Kyriacou, C. (1987). Teacher stress and burnout: An international review. Educational Research, 29, 146–152.
Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review, 53, 27–35.
Lambert, R. G., & McCarthy, C. J. (Eds.). (2006). Understanding teacher stress in an era of accountability (Vol. III). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.
Leary, M. R., Adams, C. E., & Tate, E. B. (2006). Hypo-egoic self-regulation: Exercising self-control by diminishing the influence of the self. Journal of Personality, 74, 1803–1831.
Litt, M. D., & Turk, D. C. (1985). Sources of stress and dissatisfaction in experienced high school teachers. The Journal of Educational Research, 78, 178–185.
Masicampo, E. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). Relating mindfulness and self-regulatory processes. Psychological Inquiry, 18(4), 255–258.
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422.
McCurry, S. M., Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., … Stewart, S. H. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model. The Psychological Record, 54, 553–578.
Mearns, J., & Cain, J. E. (2003). Relationships between teachers’ occupational stress and their burnout and distress: Roles of coping and negative mood regulation expectancies. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 16, 71–82.
Melbourne Academic Mindfulness Interest Group. (2006). Mindfulness-based psychotherapies: A review of conceptual foundations, empirical evidence and practical considerations. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(4), 285–294.
Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W. (1999). A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower. Psychological Review, 106, 3–19.
Montgomery, C., & Rupp, A. A. (2005). A meta-analysis exploring the diverse causes and effects of stress in teachers. Canadian Journal of Education, 28, 458–486.
Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high stakes testing corrupts America’s schools. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Ortner, C. N., Kilner, S. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Mindfulness meditation and reduced emotional interference on a cognitive task. Motivation and Emotion, 31(4), 271–283.
Ostafin, B. D., & Marlatt, G. A. (2008). Surfing the urge: Experiential acceptance moderates the relation between automatic alcohol motivation and hazardous drinking. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(4), 404–418.
Parker, P. D., & Martin, A. J. (2009). Coping and buoyancy in the workplace: Understanding their effects on teachers’ work-related well-being and engagement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 68–75.
Pascual, E., Perez-Jover, V., Mirambell, E., Ivanez, G., & Terol, M. C. (2003). Job conditions, coping and wellness/health outcomes in Spanish secondary school teachers. Psychology and Health, 18, 511–521.
Pomaki, G., & Anagnostopoulou, T. (2003). A test and expansion of the demand/control/social support model: Prediction of wellness/health outcomes in Greek teachers. Psychology and Health, 18, 537–550.
Rasku, A., & Kinnunen, U. (2003). Job conditions and wellness among Finnish upper secondary school teachers. Psychology and Health, 18, 441–456.
Roeser, R. W., & Pinela, C. (2014). Mindfulness and compassion training in adolescence: A developmental contemplative sciences perspective. New Directions in Youth Development, 2014(142), 9–30.
Roeser, R. W., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Jha, A., Cullen, M., Wallace, L., Wilensky, R., … Harrison, J. (2013). Mindfulness training and reductions in teacher stress and burnout: Results from two randomized, waitlist-control field trials. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 787–804. doi:10.1037/a0032093.
Roeser, R. W., Skinner, E. A., Beers, J., & Jennings, P. A. (2012). Mindfulness training and teachers’ professional development: An emerging area of research and practice. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 146–153.
Roeser, R. W., Vago, D. R., Pinela, C., Morris, L. S., Taylor, C., & Harrison, J. (2014). Contemplative education. In L. Nucci, T. Krettenauer, & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Handbook of moral and character education (pp. 223–247). New York, NY: Routledge.
Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). (2009). Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives. New York, NY: Springer.
Schweizer, K., & Dobrich, P. (2003). Self-reported health, appraisal, coping, and stress in teachers. Psychology Science, 45, 92–105.
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freeman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386.
Shapiro, S. L., Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G., & Flinders, T. (2008). Cultivating mindfulness: Effects on well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(7), 840–862.
Skinner, E. A. (1999). Action regulation, coping, and development. In J. B. Brandstradter & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and self-development (pp. 465–503). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 216–269.
Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In D. Featherman, R. Lerner, & M. Perlumutter (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 91–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1997). Children’s coping in the academic domain. In S. A. Wolchik & I. N. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children’s coping with common stressors: Linking theory and intervention (pp. 387–422). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
Skinner, E. A., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2007). The development of coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 119–144.
Slagter, H. A., Giesbrecht, B., Kok, A., Weissman, D. H., Kenemans, J. L., Woldorff, M. G., & Mangun G. R. (2007). fMRI evidence for both generalized and specialized components of attentional control. Brain Research, 1177, 90–102.
Spilt, J. L., Koomen, H. M., Thijs, J. T., & van der Leij, A. (2012). Supporting teachers’ relationships with disruptive children: The potential of relationship-focused reflection. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 305–318.
Spilt, J. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., & Thijs, J. T. (2011). Teacher wellbeing: The importance of student-teacher relationships. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 457–477.
Sutton, R. E., & Wheatley, K. (2003). Teachers’ emotions and teaching: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 327–358.
Tang, Y. Y., & Posner, M. I. (2009). Attention training and attention state training. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(5), 222–227.
Taylor, B. L., Strauss, C., Cavanagh, K., & Jones, F. (2014). The effectiveness of self-help mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in a student sample: A randomised controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 63, 63–69.
Tolan, P., & Grant, K. (2009). How social and cultural contexts shape the development of coping: Youth in the inner-city as an example. In E. A. Skinner & M. J. Zimmer-Gembeck (Eds.). Coping and the development of regulation. A volume for the series, R. W. Larson & L. A. Jensen (Eds.-in-Chief), New directions in child and adolescent development. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Tsouloupas, C. N., Carson, R. L., Matthews, R., Grawitch, M. J., & Barber, L. K. (2010). Exploring the association between teachers’ perceived student misbehavior and emotional exhaustion: The importance of teacher efficacy beliefs and emotion regulation. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 30, 173–189.
Unterbrink, T., Hack, A., Pfeifer, R., Buhl-Griehaber, V., Müller, U., Wesche, H., … Bauer, J. (2007). Burnout and effort-reward-imbalance in a sample of 949 German teachers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 80, 433–441.
Verhoeven, C., Kraaij, V., Joekes, K., & Maes, S. (2003). Job conditions and wellness/health outcomes in Dutch secondary school teachers. Psychology and Health, 18, 473–487.
Walach, H., Nord, E., Zier, C., Dietz-Waschkowski, B., Kersig, S., & Schüpbach, H. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a method for personnel development: A pilot evaluation. International Journal of Stress Management, 14(2), 188.
White, R. W. (1974). Strategies of adaptation: An attempt at systematic description. In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, & J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and adaptation (pp. 47–68). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Williams, M. (2010). Mindfulness and psychological process. American Psychological Association, 10, 1–7.
Winzelberg, A. J., & Luskin, F. M. (1999). The effect of a meditation training in stress levels in secondary school teachers. Stress and Health, 15, 69–77.
Zapf, D., Seifert, C., Schmutte, B., Mertini, H., & Holz, M. (2001). Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout. Psychology & Health, 16(5), 527–545.
Zapf, D. (2002). Emotion work and psychological well-being: A review of the literature and some conceptual considerations. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 1–32.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer-Verlag New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Skinner, E., Beers, J. (2016). Mindfulness and Teachers’ Coping in the Classroom: A Developmental Model of Teacher Stress, Coping, and Everyday Resilience. In: Schonert-Reichl, K., Roeser, R. (eds) Handbook of Mindfulness in Education. Mindfulness in Behavioral Health. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3506-2_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3506-2_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-3504-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-3506-2
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)