Abstract
In the East African region, Tanzania represents a nucleus of early human origin. Central Tanzania in particular abounds in prehistoric and historical human and cultural evidences. Archaeologically, Dodoma Region (35°–37° E and 4°–7° S) in Central Tanzania is a centre of attraction for rock art and early human settlements. Apart from earlier discoveries of some of the potential archaeological sites, new scholarly investigations including our surveys in and around the Dodoma Region have yielded substantial evidence to strengthen the dense nature of habitat, congenial environment, subsistence and survival of early humans. Some of the archaeological sites such as Isimila, the late Acheulian/Early Stone Age site, Kondoa, Singida and Bahi rock art sites (Culwick AT, J R Anthropol Inst Great Brit Irel. 61:443–453, 1931) of early Holocene times; and Stone Age and historical sites around the University of Dodoma are a few instances of evidence in the Dodoma Region revealing temporary, semi-sedentary and sedentary settlements located in different habitats and environments. Our research activities, which include reconnaissance survey, intrusive excavation and geospatial investigations, have uncovered several topographical and geomorphic features of archaeological sites in the region. Geomorphological features as shown by the stratigraphic profiles of test excavations in various archaeological and cultural heritage sites, location aspects, physiographic and environmental conditions and variations derived from non-intrusive geospatial technological applications such as aerial photos, satellite imagery and GPS coordinates substantively corroborate the idea of subsistence and adaptation to survival of early human populations within the existing ecological conditions. The data pertaining to satellite images for the past 60 years were used to analyse climate and other geographical conditions in the study region. This chapter examines the geographical and geomorphic features of habitat, environmental adaptation and settlement pattern of human populations in space and time through geospatial analysis. Some archaeological sites as case studies were investigated for surfacial and sub-surfacial data collection. The results of terrain analysis revealed that elevation, slope and aspect had played a vital role in human settlement locations. The evidence of climate change and variability in the case study sites showed early human adaptation strategies including settlement abandonment and migration. The use of geospatial analysis has provided better insight to relate early human settlement and environment. Further our investigations revealed threats caused by natural calamities and human vandalism to the most precious archaeological and cultural heritage sites, the promoters of tourism and plausible solutions.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adams, W. M., Goudie, A. S., & Orme, A. R. (Eds.). (1996). The physical geography of Africa. Oxford University Press.
Aitken, W. (1950). Geomorphology of parts of the Kondoa District (Tanganyika Notes and Records, No. 29). Dar es Salaam.
Ambrose, S. H. (2002). Somethings remembered: Origins and early microlithic tools industries in sub-Saharan Africa. In R. G. Elsion & S. L. Kuhn (Eds.), Thinking Small: Global Perspectives on microlithictoolsization (Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association) (Vol. 2, pp. 9–29).
Anati, A. (1980). The state of research in rock art: the rock art of Tanzania and East African sequence. In Bottllttino del Centro camuno di studPreistorical 23. Pp, 15–68.
Anati, E. (1986). ‘The rock art of Tanzania and the East African sequence’. Bulletino del Centro Camuno di Studi Preistorici 23: 15–68.
Bower, J., & Mabulla, A. Z. (2013). Setting in: Evidence of territorial exclusion in the late Middle Stone Age in Northern Tanzania. Studies in African Past, 11, 1–24.
Bower, J. R. F. (1973). Serenora: excavations at a stone bowl site in Serengeti National Park Tanzania. Azania, 8, 71–104.
Bower, J.R.F., Charles M Nelson, Albert F Waibel & Simiyu Wandibba. (1977). The University of Massachusetts Later Stone Age/Pastoral Neolithic Comparative study in central Kenya’. Azania 12, pp. 119-46.
Bower, J. R. F., & Gogan-Porter. (1981). Prehistoric cultures of the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania Papers in Anthropology. No. 3). IOWA State University.
Brown, W. T. (1970). Bagamoyo: ‘An Historical Introduction’. Tannzania Notes and Records, 71, 69–84.
Bwasiri, E. J. (2016). The Rock Art of Kondoa District, Tanzania: Approaches toward understanding authorship and meaning. PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
Bwasiri, E. J. (2011). The implications of the management of Indigenous living heritage: the case study of the MongomiWaKolo rock paintings world heritage site, central Tanzania. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 66(193), 60–66.
Chami, F. A., & Kwekason, A. (2003). Neolithic pottery traditions from the islands, the coast and the interior of East Africa. African Archaeological Review, 20(2), 65–80.
Chami, F. A. (1994). The Tanzania coast in the First Millennium A.D. Studies in Archaeology 7. Societas Archaeologica Upasliensis.
Chami, F. A. (1996). The excavation of Kiwangwa Late stone Age site. In G. Pwiti & R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African archaeology papers of 10th congress of pan African association of prehistory and related studies (pp. 307–316). University of Zimbabwe.
Chami, F.A. (1998). ‘A Review of Swahili Archaeology’. African Archaeological Review, 5 (3) 199–218.
Chami, F. A. (2000). Further archaeological research on Mafia island. Azania, 35, 208–214.
Chang, K. C. (1972). Settlement Patterns in Archaeology. An Addision-Wesley Module in Anthropology. Module, 24, 1–26.
Chaplin, J. H. (1974). The prehistoric rock art of the Lake Victoria Region. Azania, IX, 1–50.
Chittick, N. (1962). Recent discoveries in Tanganyika. Acts du VI Congress PanafricandePrehistoireet de l’etude du Quaternaire, Turvuren: Musee Royal d l’Afrique Centrale, 3, 215–223.
Clark, J. D. (1976). The domestication process in sub-Saharan Africa with reference to Ethiopia. In E. S. Higgs (Ed.), Origine de l’Élévageet de la Domestication (pp. 56–115). Union International des Science Pre- et Proto-historique.
Culwick, A. T. (1931). Some Rock-Paintings in Central Tanganyika. Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland., 61, 443–453.
Day, M. H., Leakey, M. D., & Magori, C. (1980). A Ne Hominid fossil skull (L.H. 18) from the Ngaloba Beds, Laetoli, northern Tanzania. Nature, 284, 55–56.
Ehret, C. (1974). Ethiopians and East Africans: The problem of contacts. East African Publishing House.
Ehret, C. (1976). Cushitic prehistory. In M. L. Bender (Ed.), The non-semitic languages of Ethiopia (pp. 85–96). Michigan State University Press.
Fosbrooke, H. A. (1950). The age and meaning of paintings. Tanganyika Notes and Records, 29, 11–14.
Goldstein, S. T., & Shaffer, C. S. (2017). Experimental and archaeological investigations of the backed microlith function among Mid-to-Late Holocene herders in southwestern Kenya. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 9(8), 1767–1788.
Gramly, R. M., & Rightmire, G. P. (1973). A fragmentary cranium and dated Later Stone Age assemblage from Lukenya Hill, Kenya. MAN, 8(4), 571–579.
Hansen, C. L., & Charles, M. K. (1971). ‘Environment and activity patterning at IsimilaKorongo, Iringa district, Tanzania: A preliminary report. Amarican Anthropologist, 73, 1201–1211.
Hay, R. L. (1976). Geology of the Olduvai Gorge. University of California Press.
Howell, F. C., Cole, G. H., & Kleindienst, M. R. (1962). Isimila: An Acheulian occupation site in the Iringa Highlands Province, Tanganyika. In G. Mortelmans & J. Nenquin (Eds.), Actes du IV e Congress Panafrican de Prehistoireetl’Etude du Quarternaire (Vol. 40, pp. 45–60). AnnalesMus’ee Royal de l’ Afrique Central. Serie in 8 Sciences Humaines.
Hunter, G. (1953). Hidden drums in Singida district. Tanzania Notes and Records, 34, 28–32.
Inskeep, R. (1962). The Age of the Kondoa Rock Paintings in the hight of the recent Excavations at Kisese II Rock shelter. In G. Mortelmans & J. Nenquin (Eds.), Actes du Ive Congress Panafrican de Prehistore et del ‘Etude du Questionnaire, Liopoldville 1959. Annals du Musee Royal de l’ AfriqueCenttraleSerie 1N- 80 (Science Humains) 40: Section II: 249–256.
Isaac, G. (1974). Stone age remains on Kilwa Island. In N. Chittick (Ed.), Kilwa: An Islamic trading city on the East African coast (Vol. II, pp. 254–256). Nairobi.
Kessy, E. T. (2005). The relationship between the Later Stone and Iron Age Culture of Central Tanzania. Unpublished PhD thesis, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver.
Kimambo, I. N. (1968). Eastern Bantu peoples. In B. A. Ogot (Ed.), Zamani: A survey of East African history (pp. 195–209). Longman.
Kohl- Larsen, L. (1943). Auf den Spuren des Varmenschen. Vols. 1 and 2. Strecker and Schroder.
Krishna Rao, S. and Temu, E. L. (2018). Tanzania rock art heritage and ceremonies of indigenous people: A new phenomenon of tourism attraction. In M. N. Amutabi (Ed.), Politics of development in Africa. IIC proceedings volume, Nairobi, Kenya. ISBN 978-9966-116-79-6.
Krishna Rao, S. (2018). Archaeology and Heritage around University of Dodoma Campus in Tanzania. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies (JAIS): ISSN 2523-6725 (online) November 2018 Vol. 2 (11), Nairobi, Kenya.
Kwekason, A. P. (2010). Holocene archaeology of the Southern coast of Tanzania. In E & D Vision Publishing.
Lane, P., Mapunda, B. B., & Eriksson, M. (2001). Soil erosion, iron smelting and human settlement in the Haubi Basin, north-central Tanzania. Antiquity, 75(290), 803–804.
Leakey, L. S. B. (1936). Stone age Africa. Oxford University Press.
Leakey, M. (1983). Africa’s vanishing art: The rock paintings of Tanzania. Hamish Hamilton/Rainbird.
Leakey, M. D., Hay, R. L., Thurber, D. L., Protsch, R., & Berg, R. (1972). Stratigraphy, archaeology, and age of the Ndutu Beds and Naisiusiu Beds, Olduvai Gorge. World Archaeology, 3, 328–341.
Lewis-Willams, D. J. (1984). The empiricist impasse in South African rock art studies. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 39, 58–66.
Magill, C., Ashley, G., & Freeman, K. (2012). Landscape variability and early human environments in Africa. Proceedings National Academy Sciences, USA, 110, 1167–1174.
Märker, M. (2012). Terrain Analysis and Stochastic modelling for Archaeological site prediction and landscape reconstruction in the Lake Manyara area, Northern Tanzania. Acta Agraria Debreceniensis, 49, 47–53. https://doi.org/10.34101/actaagrar/49/2478
Masao, F. (1976). ‘Some common aspects of the rock paintings of Kondoa and Singida’. Tanzania Notes and Records. No. 77 and 78. Dar es Salaam.
Masao, F. (1979). The later stone age and rock paintings of Central Tanzania. Weisbaden.
Mayaya, H. K., Opata, G., & Kipkorir, E. C. (2015). Understanding climate change and manifestation of its driven impacts in the semi arid areas of Dodoma region. Tanzania, 43(4), 364–376.
Mehlman, M. J. (1977). Excavations at Nasera Rock, Tanzania. Azania, 12(1), 111–118.
Mehlman, M. J. (1979). Mumba-Hohle revisited: The relevance of a forgotten excavation to some current issues in East African Prehistory. World Archaeology, 2(1), 81–94.
Mehlman, M. J. (1987). Provenience, age and associations of archaic Homo sapiens crania from Lake Eyasi, Tanzania. Journal of Archaeological Science, 14, 133–162.
Mehlman, M. J. (1989). Late Quaternary archaeological sequences in Northern Tanzania. Ph.D thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana.
Mnyampala, M. E. (1995). The Gogo: History, customs, and traditions. Translated, Introduced, and Edited by Gregory H. Maddox. Routledge.
Mturi, A. (1986). The pastoral neolithic of West Kilimanjaro. Azania, XXI, 53–63.
Ndessokia, P.N.S. (1990). The mammalian fauna and archaeology of the Ndolanya and Olpiro Beds, Laetoli, Tanzania. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
Newman, J. (1970). The Ecological Basis for Subsistence change Among the Sandawe of Tanzania. National Academy of Science, Washington D.C.
Odner, K. (1971). An archaeological survey of Iramba, Tanzania. Azania, 6, 151–198.
Ombori, T. L., & Mabulla, A. Z. P. (2013). The archaeology of Mbuamaji: An early iron working site in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Studies in African Past, 11, 90–113.
Phillipson, D. W. (2002). African Archaeology. Cambridge University Press.
Quennell, A. M. (1955). Proposed Mkonze dam site, Dodoma: summary report on geological conditions. Geological Survey of Tanganyika, Report No. AMQ/5.
Robertson, R. (1991). The Late Neolithic ceremonies from Shaqadud cave. In A. E. Marks & A. Mohammed- Ali (Eds.), The late prehistory of the Eastern Sahel. Southern Methodist University Press.
Ryano, K. P., Mwakipesile, A., Krishna Rao, S., Kasongi, N., Temu, E., Ngowi, E., & Kilonzo, R. (2020). Rescue archaeology at open-air sites around the University of Dodoma, Central Tanzania. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 75(212).
Sassoon, H. (1966). Guide to Kunduchi., Dar es Salaam: Antiquity department.
Sassoon, H. (1967). ‘New views on Engaruka, Northern Tanzania: Excavations carried out for Tanzania Government in 1964 & 1966. Journal of African History, 8, 201–217.
Schmidt, P. R., & Childs, S. T. (1995). Ancient African iron production. American Scientist, 83, 524–533.
Shemsanga C, Muzuka ANN, Martz L, Komakech H, Omambia AN (2016). Statistics in Climate Variability, Dry spells, and Implications for Local Livelihoods in Semiarid Regions of Tanzania: the way forward. In: Chen W-Y, Seiner J, Suzuki T, Lackner M (eds) Handbook of climate change mitigation and adaptation. Springer Science and Business Media, New York.
Shemsanga, C., Muzuka, A. N. N., Martz, L., Komakech, H., & Omambia, A. N. (2017). Statistics in climate variability, dry spells, and implications for local livelihoods in semiarid regions of Tanzania: The way forward. In W.-Y. Chen, T. Suzuki, & M. Lackner (Eds.), Handbook of climate change mitigation and adaptation (pp. 801–848). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14409-2_66
Sinclair, A. R. E. (2005). Serengeti past and present. In A. R. E. Sinclair & P. Arcese (Eds.), Serengeti II: Dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem (pp. 3–31). University of Chicago Press.
Smith, A. B. (1992). Pastoralism in Africa: Origins and development ecology. Hurst and Company.
Soper, R. (1967). Iron Age sites in North-Eastern Tanzania. Azania, 2, 19–38.
Soper, R. & Ciolden, B. (1969). ‘Archaeological Survey of Mwanza Region, Tanzania’. Azania 4: 15–79.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1978). Engaruka and its waters. Azania, XIII, 37–70.
Sutton, J. E. G. (1968). The settlement of East Africa. In B. A. Ogot (Ed.), Zamani: A survey of East African history (pp. 70–98). Longman.
Tanner, R. E. S. (1953). A series of rock paintings near Mwanza. Tanganyika Notes and Records, 34, 62–67.
Temu, E. L. (2016). The role of local communities in conservation of archaeological and historical heritage in Central and Coastal Tanzania. PhD thesis, University of Dodoma, Tanzania.
White, T. D. (1977). New Fossil hominids from Laetoli, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 46, 197–230.
Xi, C. b., Qian, T. l., Chi, Y., Chen, J., & Wang, J. c. (2018). Relationship between settlements and topographical factors: An example from Sichuan Province, China. Journal of Mountain Science, 15(9), 2043–2054. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-018-4863-z
Zhu, M., Dong, J., & Gao, Y. (2019). The research on temporal-spatial distribution and morphological characteristics of ancient settlements in the Songhua River Basin. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030932
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix (Site Photos)
Appendix (Site Photos)
-
Top first row: 1. Zinjanthropus (OVG) 2. H. habilis site (OVG) 3. H. erectus site (OVG)
-
Second row: 4. Laetoli foot prints (preserved beneath the stone structure, and so copy preserved in the museum) 5. Isimila ESA (late Acheulian) 6. Makulu Stone Age materials
-
Third row: 7. Ntyuka Chisel edged blade 8. Kikuyu blades and pounders 9. Kikuyu stone pounders.
-
Fourth row: 10. Wambambali site (UDOM) grindstone 11. Wambambali burnt daub 12. Gogo settlement near Makulu
-
Fifth row: 13 & 14. Kolo Kondoa rock paintings & 15. Singida: Kinaliya-Kyaga rock paintings.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sadasivuni, K.R., Kasongi, N., Temu, E.L. (2022). Early Human Habitation and Environmental Adaptation in Central Tanzania in East Africa: An Archaeological and Geospatial Investigation. In: Bhunia, G.S., Chatterjee, U., Lalmalsawmzauva, K., Shit, P.K. (eds) Anthropogeomorphology. Geography of the Physical Environment. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77572-8_24
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77572-8_24
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-77571-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-77572-8
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)