The Effects of Sustainability-Driven Policies on Transport CO2 Production: High-Speed Rail Transportation as an Alternative to Passenger Air Transport

Tardivo, Alessio; Carrillo Zanuy, Armando

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82095-4_11

Alessio Tardivo⁴ &
Armando Carrillo Zanuy⁴

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Mobility ((LNMOB))

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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to evaluate to which extent the rail transport mode can improve the environmental situation in Europe if it were to be at the centre of sustainability-driven policies. In particular, it aims at estimating a relative picture of the CO₂ emissions generated by short-distance air passenger transportation in Europe, which could have been transferred to high-speed rail and produce less CO₂. This study follows a three-step methodology. Firstly, it calculates the number of passengers travelling on each route between cities and estimates the total CO₂ emissions. Subsequently, it leverages the current literature on CO₂ consumption from railway passenger transport. Lastly, it estimates the possible scenarios in terms of CO₂ emissions that would have followed adequate sustainability-driven policies. The study found that short-range aviation in EU28 produced 9.2 million tons of CO₂ in 2017, which represents about 5% of total aviation emission, about 1% of total transport emission and about 0.2% of total CO₂emission. Furthermore, the CO₂ production on the 175 routes analysed increased until 2019, while precise policies could have allowed saving 582 MT CO₂. The effects of the COVID-19 outbreak on the European transport sector increases the relevance of this study. To avert the “return to normality” vis a vis Greenhouse Gases (hereinafter “GHG”) emissions from the sector, it will be necessary to introduce structural changes. As Austrian Airlines or KLM bailouts show, environmental concerns might finally influence the decision-making process on public transportation. In the context of a green recovery, this study not only lays the foundation for further contributions addressing the CO₂ production from EU-wide sectors but also underlines the role the railway can play in environmentally friendly transportation.

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Notes

1.
https://www.atmosfair.de/wp-content/uploads/atmosfair-flight-emissions-calculator-englisch-1.pdf.
2.
.https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/2016_eu_air_transport_industry_analyses_report.pdf.
3.
https://www.atmosfair.de/wp-content/uploads/atmosfair-flight-emissions-calculator-englisch-1.pdf.
4.
https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/aircraft-fleets-western-v-easterncentral-europe-airbus-leads-orders-410122.
5.
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jat/2018/6205714/abs/.
6.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/data-viewers/greenhouse-gases-viewer.
7.
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/1180.pdf.
8.
https://www.easa.europa.eu/eaer/topics/overview-aviation-sector/emissions.
9.
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/greenhouse-gas-emission-trends-6/assessment-2.
10.
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/registry_en#tab-0-1.
11.
https://newsroom.lufthansagroup.com/english/newsroom/lufthansa-group-airlines-to-offer-many-new-destinations-worldwide-in-winter-2017-18/s/7ded97ba-a414-4e04-8c8a-a9fa906b63d4.
12.
https://corporate.ryanair.com/network/?market=it.

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Authors and Affiliations

Eurnex, Berlin, Germany
Alessio Tardivo & Armando Carrillo Zanuy

Authors

Alessio Tardivo
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Armando Carrillo Zanuy
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alessio Tardivo .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Engineering Systems and Supply Chain Management, Aston University, Birmingham, UK
Marin Marinov
JP Research and Consulting, Port Lincoln, SA, Australia
Janene Piip

Annex

France: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Paris−Marseille	660	746	1.675.607	1.647.533	1.587.239	1.536.832	1.625.083	1.653.360	242.329.343
Paris−Lyon	392	427	696.547	666.803	646.480	627.489	601.033	595.637	63.158.506
Paris−Bordeaux	498	558	1.520.990	1.641.466	1.598.309	1.544.990	1.603.251	1.534.959	184.747.443
Toulouse−Lyon	359	561	406.982	379.790	372.006	360.098	372.010	393.205	34.593.470
Toulouse−Nice	468	647	151.511	156.932	149.677	140.040	149.227	142.111	17.120.799
Bordeaux−Marseille	505	671	296.067	258.398	214.120	244.975	216.938	277.605	35.231.973
Bordeaux−Lille	700	784	150.241	151.191	139.417	136.357	151.532	83.549	24.940.006
Lille−Lyon	557	639	76.463	71.431	69.437	70.172	80.255	84.146	10.169.579
Lille−Nantes	507	633	75.874	49.205	48.073	48.501	55.278	43.220	9.256.689

Germany: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Berlin—Frankfurt	420	512	1.956.290	1.935.596	1.907.300	1.792.971	1.850.787	1.815.438	191.716.371
Berlin—Cologne	475	580	1.661.630	1.871.736	1.458.740	1.322.289	1.288.102	1.381.906	174.845.621
Berlin—Dusseldorf	475	540	1.144.435	1.146.999	1.115.068	1.115.126	1.083.065	1.012.837	122.454.545
Berlin—Munich	500	732	2.061.817	2.032.997	1.975.195	1.871.623	1.833.360	1.923.488	226.175.162
Berlin—Nuremberg	375	534	212.288	229.846	228.075	248.152	248.073	302.320	17.195.288
Berlin—Stuttgart	510	699	1.037.259	986.828	961.166	1.000.407	933.613	808.545	122.396.562
Hamburg—Frankfurt	392	513	1.395.166	1.371.938	1.360.826	1.345.147	1.367.068	1.394.538	128.355.226
Hamburg—Cologne	356	439	486.021	438.330	392.791	400.809	382.832	419.119	37.909.638
Hamburg—Dusseldorf	338	422	607.220	607.249	560.614	606.191	598.510	621.865	43.112.620
Hamburg—Nuremberg	461	623	175.525	231.428	226.248	226.621	244.731	277.231	18.781.122
Hamburg—Stuttgart	533	705	689.911	720.864	718.690	740.429	707.934	710.551	86.928.786
Frankfurt—Dresden	370	493	344.396	328.775	317.276	329.897	321.610	341.149	29.273.660
Frankfurt—Munich	304	426	1.178.390	1.129.027	1.148.611	1.107.868	1.113.259	1.084.311	70.703.400
Frankfurt—Leipzig	293	375	306.124	271.832	263.657	247.182	211.703	207.099	18.367.440
Frankfurt—Hannover	262	337	375.187	349.458	346.818	361.589	350.180	349.527	20.260.098
Frankfurt—Bremen	330	459	341.196	330.319	323.550	333.720	309.052	319.651	23.883.685
Cologne—Dresden	474	679	144.042	126.722	128.823	136.992	157.723	163.760	14.404.200
Cologne—Munich	456	641	989.158	955.343	971.682	1.005.352	973.743	1.084.043	97.926.593
Cologne—Leipzig	380	560	92.856	83.098	83.687	84.605	95.039	102.790	7.057.056
Munich—Dresden	360	687	234.106	224.564	238.994	241.234	247.704	227.409	16.855.596
Munich—Duesseldorf	486	649	1.554.584	1.566.252	1.557.412	1.530.577	1.560.861	1.557.746	172.558.824
Munich—Leipzig	360	567	166.597	161.116	158.689	164.548	168.233	164.787	11.994.948
Munich—Hannover	488	647	545.365	519.145	517.341	508.449	523.545	600.159	59.990.095
Munich—Bremen	583	769	375.354	348.709	337.134	338.563	362.171	358.065	48.045.248
Munich—Dortmund	477	722	183.150	169.861	166.346	168.462	174.842	166.493	18.498.150
Dusseldorf—Dresden	486	716	200.761	233.936	224.068	214.963	210.108	249.954	22.284.471
Dusseldorf—Nuremberg	363	451	233.419	223.557	202.167	219.736	264.927	294.059	18.440.101
Dusseldorf—Leipzig	389	597	113.915	96.585	95.907	90.439	103.218	107.076	9.454.945
Dusseldorf—Stuttgart	322	408	121.437	158.450	154.985	149.681	189.576	214.141	8.622.027
Stuttgart—Hannover	400	522	182.972	203.222	201.134	202.169	219.685	236.601	17.199.321
Stuttgart—Leipzig	365	532	88.944	78.931	75.351	81.104	91.564	83.692	7.204.424
Stuttgart—Bremen	478	616	164.174	156.535	159.092	150.556	155.076	118.353	18.223.314
Stuttgart—Dresden	412	678	102.073	98.670	97.136	97.221	108.725	118.553	9.288.643
Frankfurt—Nuremberg	185	228	273.862	264.188	265.900	264.630	210.922	206.340	10.132.894
Frankfurt—Dusseldorf	185	223	425.068	376.701	386.257	396.664	374.904	383.904	15.727.516
Frankfurt—Stuttgart	152	185	375.818	349.253	342.845	316.972	256.464	238.582	11.650.343
Munich—Nuremberg	150	198	136.984	134.984	134.810	121.407	121.921	122.063	3.835.538
Munich—Stuttgart	190	239	184.724	179.809	171.522	154.579	183.009	182.294	6.834.788

Greece: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Athens—Thessaloniki	302	501	1.607.930	1.810.271	1.642.959	1.286.429	890.823	976.667	101.299.590

Italy: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Rome—Milan	475	563	1.298.769	1.519.296	1.728.454	1.867.949	2.176.579	2.328.471	140.116.030
Milan—Naples	657	777	1.181.186	877.902	1.036.253	1.080.744	1.139.585	1.333.868	177.219.784
Rome—Turin	523	710	552.145	638.287	669.837	402.491	663.540	881.145	66.809.485
Rome—Naples	188	214	297.844	328.805	303.773	292.241	280.083	283.027	11.318.053
Rome—Genoa	400	709	346.399	377.302	438.227	268.578	402.430	451.464	30.829.467
Rome—Florence	230	257	246.872	227.474	214.799	196.722	223.567	231.382	11.849.856

Poland: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Warsaw—Krakow	251	295	351.701	321.018	300.984	275.411	246.385	278.692	17.233.349
WarsawvWroclaw	300	404	527.684	321.395	232.249	256.077	249.317	359.468	33.771.776
Warsaw—Poznan	275	325	165.556	122.490	92.392	100.427	77.999	110.988	9.436.692
Katowice—Warsaw	260	294	101.861	83.008	76.692	83.646	53.875	79.373	4.889.352
Gdansk—Krakow	485	617	102.437	89.501	40.917	64.153	53.605	76.892	11.063.196
Gdansk—Warsaw	283	322	523.500	312.062	242.069	277.237	276.259	407.019	34.027.532

Portugal: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Lisbon—Porto	273	337	1.084.907	1.031.420	669.207	451.418	401.071	389.137	60.754.792

Spain: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Madrid—Barcelona	504	602	2.341.255	2.328.056	2.251.699	2.204.737	2.213.182	2.550.462	257.538.050
Madrid—Valencia	302	390	342.007	311.192	300.372	262.715	254.557	264.416	19.152.392
Madrid—Seville	387	472	301.028	284.390	264.203	244.866	238.928	351.566	26.189.436
Madrid—Malaga	415	539	319.069	318.579	318.343	330.809	278.051	401.834	31.268.762

Sweden: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Goteborg—Stockholm	396	457	1.342.789	1.332.425	1.356.789	1.360.005	1.309.350	1.270.131	115.117.133

United Kingdom: national short-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
London—Leeds	271	313	161.553	159.972	148.106	131.738	118.368	:	8.239.203
London—Glasgow	550	650	2.523.565	2.607.611	2.510.159	2.270.005	2.245.095	2.214.407	314.890.145
London—Manchester	260	320	663.022	692.631	774.266	876.694	797.233	1.014.816	31.162.011
Birmingham—Glasgow	405	466	221.689	226.364	227.171	230.354	204.348	209.183	19.508.588

European Union: international short-distance routes

Route		Distance on rail network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Berlin—Vienna	522	793	861.549	799.171	779.209	786.821	737.622	733.861	105.648.491
Berlin—Brussels	650	803	621.887	702.091	509.558	438.072	420.897	411.814	87.734.121
Berlin—Amsterdam	577	639	898.328	871.104	788.082	722.859	664.718	597.733	117.048.584
Berlin—Krakow	530	687	107.356	112.611	125.071	127.230	131.155	60.023	13.097.432
Berlin—Warsaw	515	582	108.086	111.309	119.051	125.214	113.879	:	13.078.346
Berlin—Rotterdam	615	672	50.162	60.006	45.424	:	:	:	6.671.546
Berlin–Prague	280	393	87.517	:	:	:	:	:	87.517
Hamburg—Amsterdam	366	487	456.955	499.678	466.508	392.010	370.496	383.474	37.927.224
Hamburg—Brussels	487	662	281.535	177.984	152.531	152.063	140.189	142.414	30.968.795
Hamburg—Prague	490	679	110.445	:	:	:	:	:	12.480.285
Hamburg—Copenhagen	288	509	179.783	182.586	203.819	224.341	164.867	146.944	10.247.631
Frankfurt—Vienna	597	773	1.180.077	1.164.447	1.177.776	1.349.957	1.310.658	1.193.168	166.390.787
Frankfurt—Brussels	316	409	548.283	465.754	517.106	472.273	458.586	449.965	33.445.233
Frankfurt—Prague	410	706	519.591	513.934	551.300	506.908	498.017	484.873	47.282.781
Frankfurt—Amsterdam	363	442	841.591	816.077	799.336	752.964	725.609	716.479	66.485.689
Frankfurt—Lyon	560	717	321.089	295.168	293.225	296.434	269.111	267.986	39.814.974
Cologne—London	497	640	594.321	630.692	662.696	483.048	472.746	482.740	65.859.258
Frankfurt—Paris	477	583	944.070	906.179	964.443	1.053.915	1.041.456	1.114.330	97.239.159
Frankfurt—Milan	517	668	824.949	766.169	766.448	745.606	721.675	692.098	94.832.521
Frankfurt—Poznan	627	770	90.610	83.795	76.820	70.880	37.312	52.576	13.138.378
Frankfurt—London	636	793	1.864.255	1.948.862	2.004.808	1.970.538	1.929.011	1.903.271	270.390.653
Munich—Vienna	355	460	547.029	487.231	555.875	542.825	562.934	563.954	41.574.166
Munich—Prague	300	435	208.823	206.119	210.289	198.640	231.447	208.319	10.858.796
Munich—Budapest	561	717	343.143	330.084	323.050	321.154	321.670	316.537	44.951.733
Munich—Milan	348	587	490.865	422.178	449.664	328.091	335.460	382.039	40.699.460
Munich—Turin	453	734	180.986	165.822	167.375	150.007	158.812	129.568	19.546.488
Munich—Florence	486	645	189.128	170.895	176.012	183.717	159.752	148.268	23.073.616
Munich—Genoa	460	733	92.441	90.247	94.869	57.061	94.390	86.788	10.445.777
Munich—Zagreb	423	579	191.842	181.833	181.593	180.355	181.528	174.846	19.184.150
Duesseldorf—Paris	410	576	466.309	445.904	436.439	479.986	475.470	491.932	40.568.883
Duesseldorf—Amsterdam	180	219	234.348	226.624	205.169	184.800	171.676	182.285	8.202.180
Duesseldorf—London	478	630	895.321	754.168	691.468	655.562	645.832	621.847	101.719.803
Nuremberg—Vienna	411	508	77.401	67.332	66.770	66.010	76.761	96.040	7.585.298
Nuremberg—Budapest	625	772	119.181	:	:	:	:	:	16.446.909
Nuremberg—Milan	465	785	102.908	:	:	:	:	:	9.673.305
Nuremberg—Amsterdam	541	670	188.110	191.908	186.317	168.381	160.861	159.534	23.325.640
Hannover—Amsterdam	327	382	178.804	177.510	170.371	168.236	166.610	162.048	12.516.280
Stuttgart—Vienna	533	699	427.883	367.782	344.447	338.863	338.549	342.851	53.485.375
Stuttgart—Brussels	416	597	99.357	76.923	77.337	:	:	:	9.339.511
Stuttgart—Milan	368	619	155.424	139.455	130.075	81.343	88.323	89.912	11.345.952
Stuttgart—Paris	500	602	182.358	178.710	186.075	184.014	199.562	228.251	20.424.040
Stuttgart—Amsterdam	500	627	325.281	312.612	284.093	228.398	210.300	206.128	38.057.819
Dortmund—London	525	720	213.763	207.802	217.228	236.209	160.585	162.044	23.844.358
Dortmund—Wroclaw	666	788	31.843	31.704	30.516	29.754	29.316	27.658	4.489.863
Bremen—Amsterdam	274	372	164.296	155.210	152.309	141.149	143.921	138.104	9.036.280
London—Paris	343	460	2.181.247	2.245.164	2.194.613	2.042.799	1.831.887	1.751.282	157.571.551
London—Amsterdam	357	597	4.488.263	4.141.696	3.847.757	3.442.148	3.229.507	3.117.265	336.498.375
London—Rotterdam	320	529	178.052	219.274	219.991	272.696	235.109	112.983	10.327.016
Birmingham—Paris	502	640	398.933	380.981	388.357	388.862	365.691	358.896	44.281.563
Birmingham—Amsterdam	460	697	676.693	633.081	565.453	508.644	460.633	445.610	67.669.300
Leeds—Paris	612	783	49.051	46.604	49.110	61.148	63.306	64.103	6.425.681
Manchester—Paris	605	780	630.886	568.366	478.819	507.100	503.387	470.466	82.646.066
Sheffield—Paris	570	726	41.697	48.431	:	:	:	:	5.003.640
Vienna—Warsaw	557	664	222.350	205.889	205.113	208.178	207.535	207.423	28.016.037
Vienna—Budapest	215	264	103.411	100.208	104.901	107.372	104.075	106.144	4.239.851
Vienna—Zagreb	268	481	164.100	160.326	163.421	163.748	158.326	163.022	8.533.200
Brussels—Paris	261	315	199.065	203.444	205.727	170.833	156.712	132.912	9.754.161
Brussels—Lyon	560	742	245.347	216.856	239.002	240.540	221.730	226.416	32.140.392
Brussels—Amsterdam	180	219	259.780	219.141	243.416	241.883	223.166	213.768	12.729.220
Brussels—Birmingham	466	488	152.911	133.353	144.297	120.092	107.179	105.405	16.208.566
Brussels—Manchester	535	698	397.564	376.620	385.279	332.714	287.574	262.263	48.321.378
Brussels—London	318	378	651.306	572.195	722.546	673.362	568.996	547.948	48.196.607
Antwerp—London	316	433	50.229	54.422	58.319	54.043	70.810	71.962	3.114.198
Copenhagen—Goteborg	226	339	289.570	331.470	298.020	336.134	306.589	327.313	11.872.350
Budapest—Prague	440	609	109.502	78.296	:	:	:	75.708	12.264.224
Riga—Warsaw	958	676	115.588	95.197	86.196	80.683	65.635	66.016	15.373.138
Riga—Vilnius	265	347	162.870	165.797	165.048	175.214	181.108	178.129	8.794.953
Warsaw – Vilnius	390	568	167.559	121.675	101.614	100.675	94.416	72.707	15.247.869
Barcelona—Lyon	530	680	294.658	308.922	302.408	282.955	294.310	212.719	36.832.250
Barcelona—Marseille	335	580	78.118	78.985	:	:	:	:	5.833.050
Barcelona—Bordeaux	443	678	162.115	120.481	77.669	68.707	61.595	67.767	17.670.480
Amsterdam—Paris	428	522	1.422.740	1.324.720	1.154.023	1.158.098	1.127.698	1.141.903	125.997.340
Paris—Turin	580	731	171.647	174.458	181.807	178.319	178.723	189.469	22.314.045
Warsaw—Prague	517	747	212.637	196.005	179.672	162.341	153.787	160.386	26.366.988

France: national medium-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Distance on road network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Paris−Toulouse	586	816	680	3.254.630	3.258.878	3.214.776	3.169.217	3.192.829	3.154.149	450.067.524
Bordeaux—Lyon	437	985	556	532.009	508.416	474.885	459.698	450.582	451.107	59.052.999

Germany: national medium-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Distance on road network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Munich—Hamburg	610	825	775	1.739.043	1.805.203	1.811.381	1.762.070	1.721.782	1.721.358	269.551.665

Italy: national medium-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Distance on road network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Naples—Genoa	590	923	700	79.120	48.233	55.321	28.979	58.654	78.390	10.681.200

Spain: national medium-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Distance on road network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Valencia—Seville	539	862	654	182.431	113.126	125.082	100.509	151.100	200.946	21.891.720

European Union: international medium-distance routes

Route	Distance in a straight line (km)	Distance on rail network (km)	Distance on road network (km)	Passengers 2017	Passengers 2016	Passengers 2015	Passengers 2014	Passengers 2013	Passengers 2012	CO₂ produced in 2017 (Kg)
Bremen—Paris	650	1042	787	71.977	81.496	94.566	111.216	93.261	86.607	10.220.734
Hannover—Paris	650	832	773	162.607	155.232	154.388	152.446	160.392	155.251	23.252.801
Dresden—Amsterdam	626	935	734	40.541	26.969					5.473.035
Leipzig—Vienna	586	906	582	55.397	50.189	53.549	55.844	53.747	50.139	6.093.670
Nurnberg—Paris	637	808	759	169.229	157.601	161.757	159.913	147.525	146.125	23.861.219
Duesseldorf—Birmingham	611	1054	783	270.567	241.274	219.054	198.654	184.347	175.607	36.797.044
Berlin—Copenhagen	365	803	750	629.851	679.784	634.634	632.246	579.484	525.643	46.356.508
Cologne—Copenhagen	645	948	750	110.729	110.874	:	:	:	:	15.280.602
Frankfurt—Turin	565	819	738	192.261	186.392	206.678	168.617	202.560	189.370	23.648.103
Frankfurt—Wroclaw	600	844	725	148.028	138.459	140.732	108.570	105.793	100.426	20.427.795
Munich—Brussels	602	835	780	403.195	349.794	347.172	351.434	363.450	365.824	54.431.325
Munich—Lyon	570	902	731	186.797	188.556	190.066	202.512	222.971	211.898	25.030.731
Munich—Wroclaw	512	1005	720	137.124	138.119	126.466	126.359	128.033	122.759	15.220.764
Duesseldorf—Prague	554	942	724	234.022	192.126	166.656	178.444	164.417	154.948	29.252.750
Duesseldorf—Copenhagen	625	931	728	312.164	378.972	380.323	379.853	386.314	326.087	44.327.217
Duesseldorf—Lyon	620	1317	759	78.996	:	:	76.649	131.316	137.295	11.296.428
Hamburg—Gdansk	572	767	858	68.010	43.745	:	:	:	:	8.705.280
Zagreb—Stuttgart	610	818	780	55.176	54.103	50.675	50.082	50.270	51.362	10.593.792
Sofia—Athens	526	850	790	201.971	146.979	95.600	96.364	89.203	96.117	24.640.401
Budapest to Warsaw	550	867	781	238.254	212.363	196.648	172.417	181.743	115.697	30.496.448
Madrid—Lisbon	503	1324	629	1.427.516	1.296.808	1.173.975	1.027.638	974.675	1.109.369	166.970.934
Madrid—Toulouse	552	702	1022	366.401	201.864	154.094	160.710	187.944	206.766	47.265.793
Madrid—Bordeaux	554	686	849	103.995	:	:	46.408	43.146	95.782	13.311.360
Madrid—Porto	422	562	856	615.261	533.548	484.125	395.307	362.452	398.131	63.987.196
Malaga- Lisbon	470	1863	650	88.069	:	:	:	:	:	8.962.026
Seville—Lisbon	312	1790	433	95.730	:	:	:	:	:	6.318.906

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Tardivo, A., Carrillo Zanuy, A. (2022). The Effects of Sustainability-Driven Policies on Transport CO₂ Production: High-Speed Rail Transportation as an Alternative to Passenger Air Transport. In: Marinov, M., Piip, J. (eds) Sustainable Rail Transport 4. Lecture Notes in Mobility. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82095-4_11

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82095-4_11
Published: 17 December 2021
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-82094-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-82095-4
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The Effects of Sustainability-Driven Policies on Transport CO2 Production: High-Speed Rail Transportation as an Alternative to Passenger Air Transport

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Annex

Annex

France: national short-distance routes

Germany: national short-distance routes

Greece: national short-distance routes

Italy: national short-distance routes

Poland: national short-distance routes

Portugal: national short-distance routes

Spain: national short-distance routes

Sweden: national short-distance routes

United Kingdom: national short-distance routes

European Union: international short-distance routes

France: national medium-distance routes

Germany: national medium-distance routes

Italy: national medium-distance routes

Spain: national medium-distance routes

European Union: international medium-distance routes

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The Effects of Sustainability-Driven Policies on Transport CO₂ Production: High-Speed Rail Transportation as an Alternative to Passenger Air Transport