Abstract
Gladiolus, a perennial geophyte, belongs to the family Iridaceae. Gladiolus species were recognized over 2,000 years ago in the field of Asian Minor. The European species were cultivated at least 500 years ago and first reported to be found in New Forest, UK in 1855, was evolved within short time to occupy top ranks of international flower trade. About 255 species of the genus were reported, out of which more than 114 are native to South Africa. The origin, distribution, and taxonomy of this genus are detailed in this chapter. Polyploidy and significant variation were reported for the chromosome number in Gladiolus but in many species base number was x = 15. Extent of genetic erosion, endangered species (like Gladiolus alatus var. algoensis), and modes of conservation including cryopreservation have been discussed. A detailed account of genetic improvement right from natural hybridization among the species G. communis, G. careneus (G. bladus), and G. cardinalis before 1880 to advanced techniques using molecular markers is given. Mention about change in breeding objectives over a period of time, utilization of wild species for crop improvement, advances in genetic transformation through non-conventional methods is also made. The contribution of different species in the development of modern-day cultivars and the process of evolution are also discussed. Breeding for fragrance, a trait lost in the course of evolution and most desired today is detailed. Economic importance of the genus and further scope for domestication and commercialization are mentioned.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Adamovici I (2005) Gladioly-Meciky. In: History of growing and breeding Gladiolus. Bratislava, Slovakia, 84 p
Aebig J, Kamo K, Hsu HT (2005) Biolistic inoculation of gladiolus with cucumber mosaic cucumovirus. J Virol Methods 123:89–94
Anderton E, Park R (1989) Growing Gladioli. Timber, Portland, OR, USA, 166 p
Anonymous (1974) Annual report. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, India, 45 p
Anonymous (1980) Annual report. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, India, pp 50–52
Baek HY, Kim HH, Cho EG, Chae YA, Engelmann F (2003) Importance of explant size and origin and of preconditioning treatments for cryopreservation of garlic shoot apieces by vitrification. CryoLetters 24:381–388
Bailey LH, Bailey EZ (1976) Hortus third: a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Revised and expanded by the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University. Macmillan, New York, USA
Bamford R (1935) The chromosome number in Gladiolus. J Agric Res 51:945–950
Barnard TT (1972) On hybrids and hybridization. In: Lewis GJ, Obermeyer AA, Barnard TT (eds) Gladiolus, A revision of the South African Species. J S Afr Bot 10:304–310
Beldie A (1977–1979) The flora of Romania. Illustrated determinator of vascular plants, vols 1 & 2. Academy Republic Socialist Romania, Bucharest, Romania
Bentham G, Hooker JD (1883) Genera Plantarum, vol 3. Reeve, London, UK
Bose TK, Yadav LP (1989) (eds) Commercial flowers. Naya Prakash, Kolkata, India, 874p
Bouman H, Tiekstra A, Petuschning E, Homan M, Schreurs R (2003) Cryopreservation of Lilium species and cultivars. Acta Hortic 612:147–154
Bowes SA (1990) Long term storage of Narcissus anthers and pollen in liquid nitrogen. Euphytica 48:275–278
Brian PW, Curtis PJ, Hemming HG (1948) Albidin, an antibiotic red pigment from Penicillium albidum. J Gen Microbiol 2:341–355
Buch PO (1972) The species. In: Koenig N, Crowley W (eds) The world of the Gladiolus. Edgewood, Edgewood, MA, USA, pp 2–7
Burnett GT (1835) Outlines of botany, including a general history of the vegetable kingdom, in which plants are arranged according to the system of natural affinities. H Renshaw, London, UK
Cabbarov M (2000) Talis daginin dag kserofit bitkiliyi. Doktora Tezi, Botanik Enstitusu, Baku
Cantor M, Dumitraş A, Pop R, Pop I, Cordea M, Zaharia A (2008) Studies Concerning the Behaviour of some Gladiolus Cultivars for Improving the Romanian Floral Assortment. In: Book of Abstracts, 1st symposium on horticulture in Europe, Vienna, Austria, 17–20 Feb 2008, p 287
Cantor M, Joung H Y, Cho HR, Park SK, Buta E (2008) Floriculture in Korea: opportunities and challenges for collaborative research. Bull Univ Agric Sci Vet Med Cluj-Napoca Hortic 65(1):485
Cho HR (2007) Gladiolus. In: Horticulture in Korea. Korean Society for Horticultural Science, Suwon, Korea, pp 279–282
Cho HR, Lee SY (2008) Thrips resistance breeding of gladiolus. J Kor Soc Hortic Sci 46:143–148
Cho HR, Rhee HK, Lim JH, Kim MS, Park SK, Shin HK, Joung HJ, Yae BW (2008) New gladiolus cultivars developed in Korea. Korean Society for Horticultural Science, Suwon, Korea, pp 73–79
Ciocârlan V (2009) The Romanian illustrated flora. Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta. Ceres, Bucharest, Romania, 1141 p (in Romanian)
Cohat J (1988) Estimation de l’heritabilite de quelques caracteres chez le Glaieul (G. grandiflorus Hort.). Agronomie 8:179–185
Cohat J (1993) Gladiolus. In: Le Nard M, De Hertog AA (eds) The physiology of flower bulbs. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp 297–320
De Meyer Jr (1982) Family food garden. Aug-Sept garden iss, pp 46–49
De Wet GC, Pheiffer RH (1979) Simon van der Stel’s journey to Namaqualand in1685. Human & Rousseau, Cape Town, South Africa
Delpierre GR, Du Plessis NM (1973) The winter-growing Gladiolus of South Africa. Tafelberg, Cape Town, Johannesburg, South Africa, 71 p
Dumortier BC (1822) Observations Botaniques. Tournay, C. casterman-Die, Belgium
Duncan GD (1981) Gladiolus aureus Bak.-its present position. Veld Flora 67:17–18
Duncan GD (1987) Gladiolus aureus. The flowering plants of Africa. Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden 49:1948
Duncan GD (2002) Just holding on-spectacular geophytes in peril. Veld Flora 88:142–147
Engler A (1908) Die Pflanzenbelt Afrikas. Vegetation der Erde 9:2
Garrity JB (1975) Gladioli for everyone. Devon & Charles, London, UK
Goldblatt P (1971a) Cytological and morphological studies in the southern African Iridaceae. S Afr J Bot 37:317–460
Goldblatt P (1971b) J S Afr Bot 37:317–460
Goldblatt P (1989) Systematics of Gladiolus (Iridaceae) in Madagascar. Bull Mus Hist Nat Paris Sér 4 Sect B Adansonia 11:235–255
Goldblatt P (1993) Iridaceae. In: Pope GV (ed) Flora Zambesiaca, vol 12(4). Flora Zambesiaca Managing Committee, London, UK, pp 1–106
Goldblatt P (1996) Gladiolus in tropical Africa. Timber, Portland, Oregon
Goldblatt P (2001) Phylogeny and classification of the Iridaceae and the relationships of Iris. In: Colasante MA, Rudall PJ (eds) Irises and Iridaceae: biodiversity and systematics. Annali di Botanica (Roma), nuov ser 1(2):13–28
Goldblatt P (2008) Additions to Gladiolus (Iridaceae) in the Flora Zambesiaca region: the new species G. metallicola and the reinstatement of G. mosambicensis. Novon 18(2):164–167
Goldblatt P, Manning J (1998) Gladiolus in southern Africa. Fernwood, Vlaeberg, Cape Town, South Africa
Goldblatt P, Manning J (2002) Evidence for moth and butterfly pollination in Gladiolus species (Iridaceae: Crocoideae). Ann MO Bot Gard 89:110–124
Goldblatt P, Takei M (1997) Chromosome cytology of Iridaceae base numbers, patterns of variation and modes of karyotype change. Ann MO Bot Gard 84:285
Goldblatt P, Manning J, Berhardt P (1998) Adaptive radiation of bee-pollinated Gladiolus species (Iridaceae) in southern Africa. Ann MO Bot Gard 85:492–517
Goldblatt P, Rodriguez A, Powell MP, T Davies J, Manning JC, M van der Bank, Savolainen V (2008) Iridaceae ‘Out of Australasia’? Phylogeny, biogeography, and divergence time based on plastid DNA sequences. Syst Bot 33:495–508
Graves ACF, Goldman SL (1987) Agrobacterium tumefaciens-metiated transformation of the monocot genus Gladiolus: detection of expression of T-DNA-encoded genes. J Bacteriol 169:1745–1746
Hamilton AP (1967) The discovery and present status of Gladiolus illyricus, Koch., in Britain. J Durham Univ Biol Soc 13:1–4
Hamilton AP (1968) A study of some western Eurasian Gladioli. Watsonia 8:88
Hamilton AP (1976) A history of the garden gladiolus. The Garden 101:424–428
Hammond J, Kamo K (1995a) Resistance to bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV) and other potyviruses in transgenic plants expressing BYMV antisense RNA, coat protein, or chimeric coat proteins. In: Bills DD, Kung SD (eds) Biotechnology and plant protection: viral pathogenesis and disease resistance. World Scientific, Singapore, pp 369–389
Hammond J, Kamo K (1995b) Effective resistance to potyvirus infection conferred by expression of antisense RNA in transgenic plants. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 8:674–682
Hammond J, Hsu HT, Jordan R, Kamo K, Pooler M (2006) Transgenic approaches to disease resistance in ornamental crops. Crop Improv 17:155–210
Hartline C (1996) How to grow glorious Gladiolus. The North American Gladiolus Council. http://www.gladworld.org/How%20to%20grow%20Gladiolus.htm
Huntley BJ (1993) Botanical diversity in southern Africa. In: Proceedings of a conference on the conservation and utilization of southern African Botanical Diversity, Cape Town, S Africa, Sept 1993, p 412
Hutchinson (1932) The families of flowering plants II: Monocotyledons. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, UK
Huxley A, Griffiths M, Levy M (1992) (eds) The New Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening, vol 2. MacMillan, London, UK, pp 413–422
Imanishi H (1989a) Gladiolus. In: Matsuo T (ed) Collected data of plant genetic resources. Kodansha Scientific, Tokyo, Japan, pp 1077–1080
Imanishi H (1989b) Collected data of plant genetic resources. In: Matsuo T (ed) Gladiolus. Kodansya Scientific, Tokyo, Japan, pp 1077–1080 (in Japanese)
Ismailov N (1985) Alcholoid plants of Azerbaijan SSR. Science, Baku
Jacot Guillarmod A (1971) Flora of Lesotho. Verlag von J Cramer, Lehre, Germany, 474 p
Joung YH, Kamo K (2006) Expression of a polyubiquitin promoter isolated from Gladiolus. Plant Cell Rep 25:1081–1088
Joung YH, Cantor M, Ellis D, Kamo K (2007) Vitrification of Gladiolus shoot tips from cormels. Hort Environ Biotechnol 48(4):251–255
Kamo K (1995) A cultivar comparasion of plant regeneration from suspension cells, callus and cormel slices of Gladiolus. In vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 31:113–115
Kamo K, Blowers A (1999) Tissue specificity and expression level of gusA under rolD, mannopine synthase and translation elongation factor 1 subunit α promoters in transgenic Gladiolus plants. Plant Cell Rep 18:809–815
Kamo K, Cantor M (2007) Genetic engineering for disease resistance in ornamental plants In: The Int Symp on Conservation of Horticultural Germplasm, Todesco Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 10–12 Sep 2007, pp 36–39
Kamo K, Blowers A, Smith F, Van Eck J, Lawson R (1995a) Stable transformation of Gladiolus using suspension cells and callus. J Am Hortic Sci 120:347–352
Kamo K, Blowers A, Smith F, Van Eck J (1995b) Stable transformation of Gladiolus by particle gun bombardment of cormels. Plant Sci 110:105–111
Kamo K, Blowers A, McElroy D (2000) Effect of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S, actin, and ubiquitin promoters on uidA expression from a bar-uidA fusion gene in transgenic Gladiolus plants. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 36:13–20
Kamo K, Gera A, Cohen J, Hammond J et al (2005) Transgenic Gladiolus plants transformed with the bean yellow mosaic virus coat protein in either sense or antisense orientation. Plant Cell Rep 23:654–663
Kemper J, Cowling RM, Richardson DM (1999) Fragmentation of South African renosterveld shrublands: effects on plant community structure and conservation implications. Biol Conserv 90:103–111
Khan G, Kapoor VP, Farooqi MIH (1980) A note on the carbohydrate and protein contents of the Gladiolus corms. Indian J Hortic 37:182–184
Konoshima H (1980) Diffusible growth regulators from Gladiolus. J Jpn Soc Hortic Sci 49:403–8
Koopowitz HR (2008) International society Conservation page. Conservation for Bulbous Plants. http://www.bulbsociety.org/About_Bulbs/CONSERVATION
Koopwitz H, Voss R, Neil O (1984) Long term storage of gladiolus pollen. HortScience 19:513–514
Laurie A, Kiplinger DC, Nelson KS (1958) Commercial flower forcing. McGraw Hill, New York, USA
Lewis GJ, Obermeyer AA, Barnard TT (1972) Gladiolus. A revision of the South African species. J S Afr Bot 10(suppl):316 p
Manley TR (1968) The quality of a commercial variety (I). Bulletin Glad World N Am Gladiolus Council Bull 96:81–84
Manley TR (1969) The quality of a commercial variety (II). Bull Glad World N Am Gladiolus Council Bull 97:96–99
Maximov NA, Rakitin JV, Turezkaya RK (1945) A procedure ensuring the preservation of vitamin C in leaves of gladiolus prepared for storage. AR Acad Sci URSS 48:651–4
Mazur BJ, Tingey SV (1995) Genetic mapping and introgression of genes of agronomic importance. Curr Opin Biotechnol 6:175–182
McDougall K (2008) Peeters enterprises Gladiolus. Glad World USA 254:23–26
Misra RL (1977) Outstanding gladiolus. Delhi Garden Magazine, pp 20–25
Misra RL (1995) Advances in horticulture. In: Chadha KL, Bhattacharjee SK (eds) Advances in horticulture, vol 12, part 1: Ornamental plants. Malhotra, New Delhi, India, pp 93–202
Misra RL, Kaicker US (1986) Geostorical development of gladiolus. Bull Glad Word N Am Gladiolus Council Bull 165:43–45
More AG (1862) On the discovery of Gladiolus illyricus (Koch) in the Isle of Wight. Proc Linn Soc Lond 6:177–178
Neagu M, Stefan L, Georgescu M, Canarache V (1976) Breeding of ornamental plants. Ceres, Bucharest, Hungary, pp 72–87
Ohri D, Khoshoo TN (1983) Cytogenetics of garden gladiolus. III. Hybridization. Z Pflanzenzucht 91:46–60
Ohri D, Khoshoo TN (1985a) Citogenetics of garden Gladiolus. II. Variation in chromosome complement and meiotic system. Cytologia 50:213–231
Ohri D, Khoshoo TN (1985b) Cytogenetical evolution of garden Gladiolus. Nucleus 28:216–221
Palocsay R (1961) My experiences in flower breeding. Agrosilvica, Bucharest, Romania
Raja Rao T, Murti GSR, Challa P (1983) Cytokinins in Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus) Corms. Ann Bot 52:703–710
Rao TM, Janakiram T (1992) Breeding for fragrance in gladiolus utilizing wild species. In: National seminar on commercial floriculture in India present & potential, Bangalore, 12–13 July 1992, India, Abstract p 36
Rouget M, Richardson DM, Cowling RM, Lloyd JW, Lombard AT (2003) Current patterns of habitat transformation and future threats to biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biol Conserv 112:63–85
Roy RK (2008) Floricultural boom in India. Chron Hortic 48(2):16
Sakai A, Kobayashi S, Oiyama I (1990) Cryopreservation of nucellar cells of navel orange (Citrus sinensis Osb. var brasiliensis Tanaka) by vitrification. Plant Cell Rep 9:30–33
Savchenko E (2008) In memoriam Vladimir Trifonov. Glad World USA 254:13–14
Selimov R (2008) Some geophytes identified around the Lenkoran and Lerik (Azerbaijan) region. EurAsia J BioSci 2(11):91–101
Stein A (1995) Gladiolus. In: Loebenstein G, Lawson RH, Brunt AA (eds) Virus and virus-like diseases of bulb and flower crops. Wiley, New York, USA, pp 281–292
Stokes J (1987) The ecology of the wild Gladiolus (Gladiolus illyricus) in the new forest, Hampshire. NCC & University of London, London, UK
Suzuki K, Yamada T, Gonai T, Inoue E, Takatsu Y, Kasumi M, Nogi M (2005) Interspecific hybridization wild gladiolus species using a dendrogram based on RAPD analysis. Acta Hortic 673(V2): 475–480
Suzuki K, Oyama-Okubo N, Nakayama M, Takatsu Y, Kasumi M (2008) Floral scent of wild Gladiolus species and the selection of breeding material for this character. Breed Sci 58:89–92
Takagi H, Tien Thinh N, Islam OM, Senboku T, Sakai A (1997) Cryopreservation of in vitro-grow shoot tips of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) by vitrification. 1. Investigation of basic condition of the vitrification procedure. Plant Cell Rep 16:594–599
Takatsu Y, Miyamoto M, Inoue E, Yamada T, Manabe T, Kasumi M, Hayashi M, Sakuma F, Marubashi W, Niwa M (2001) Interspecific hybridization of southern Africa based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA markers. Sci Hortic 91:339–348
Takatsu Y, Suzuki K, Yamada T, Inoue E, Gonai T, Nogi M, Kasumi M (2005) Interspecific hybridization of wild Gladiolus species using a dendrogram based on RADP analysis. Acta Hortic 673:475–48
Tasenkevich L (2003) Carpathian list of endangered species. Europress, Kraków, Poland, pp 6–13
Thunberg CP (1823) Flora Capensis. JA Schultes, Stuttgart, Germany
Toone G (2005) Debates on the nativity of Wild Gladiolus. BSBI Recorder 9:17–19
Townsend F (1904) The flora of Hampshire including the Isle of Wight, 2nd edn. Lovell Reeve, London, UK
Van Eck J, Smith F, Blowers A, Sanford J (1994) Transformation of Eastern lily via particle bombardment. HortScience 29:527
Van Eijk JP, Van Zayen A, Eikelboom W (1986) Droogrot en Fusarium bedreigen Gladiolen teelt. Weekbladvoor Bloembollencultuur 97:16–18
Wang J, Zhao H, Gong S, Che D (2006) RAPD analysis of twelve general species of Gladiolus hybridus Hort. J Northeast Agric Univ 13(2):112–115
Wilfred GJ (1971) What makes a commercial glad in Florida? N Am Gladiolus Council Bull 106:78–79
Wilfret GJ (1980) Gladiolus. In: Larson AR (ed) Introduction to floriculture. Academic, New York, USA, pp 166–171
Wright J (1971) Gladiolus. Am Hortic Mag 50:79–83
Young Hee J, Kamo K (2006) Expression of a polyubiquitin promoter isolated from Gladiolus. Plant Cell Rep 25:1081–1088
Acknowledgment
We are grateful for the counsels and information of and from Prof. Peter Goldblatt and Dr. Kathy Kamo.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Citation
Citation
Article by DOI (with page number) | Goldblatt (2008) Additions to Gladiolus (Iridaceae) in the Flora Zambesiaca Region: The New Species G. metallicola and the Reinstatement of G. mosambicensis In: Novon: A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature, 18(2):164–167. doi: 10.3417/2006070.1802 |
Online database | Journal of Northeast Agricultural University. http://c.wanfangdata.com.cn/periodical/dbnydxxb-e/2006-2.aspx |
Online database | IUCN Red List (April, 2008) http://iucnredlist.org |
Online database | Toone G (2005) Debates on the nativity of Wild Gladiolus, BSBI Recorder 9, 17–19 http://www.bsbi.org.uk/TooneGladiolus.pdf |
Online database | Koopowitz HR (2008) http://www.bulbsociety.org/About_Bulbs/CONSERVATION |
Online database | UNEP-WCMC: Cape Floral Protected Areas of South Africa (February, 2008) http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/cape_floral.html |
Online database | Fauna and Flora International (February, 2008) http://www.fauna-flora.org/fynbos.php |
Online database | Cape Action for People and the Environment (November, 2008) http://www.capeaction.org. |
Online database | Invasive or Environmental Weeds of Waitakere (May, 2010) http://www.waitakere.govt.nz/cnlser/pw/plantweed/pdf/weedlist-env-inv.pdf |
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Cantor, M., Tolety, J. (2011). Gladiolus. In: Kole, C. (eds) Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21201-7_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21201-7_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-21200-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-21201-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)