Description
After more than five decades of unrelenting activity, the Maoist conflict constitutes one of the most enduring insurgencies India has faced since independence. Originating from the Naxalite movement ignited by the peasant uprising sparked off in Naxalbari, West Bengal, in 1967, this low-intensity conflict has a long history of resilience despite being characterized by periodic phases of transformation, expansion, and retraction since its inception. While retaining firm ideological roots in Marxist-Leninist-Maoist thought, the Maoist conflict in India has evolved from a series of localized agrarian revolts erupted in the late 1960s and early 1970s into a widespread and heterogenous revolutionary movement. In its present form, the Maoist insurgency fights against the socio-economic inequalities generated by globalization and the dispossession of...
Notes
- 1.
The term dalit means “oppressed” in Hindi. It was coined by those communities which have been historically excluded from the caste system and discriminated against as untouchables in the Indian society. Even though untouchability was abolished by the Indian constitution in 1950 (art. 17), its practice and other forms of caste-base discrimination still persist nowadays. The majority of Dalits – 16.6% of the total population (Census of India, 2011) – still lack access to key resources (e.g. land) and continue to record low socio-economic indicators, especially in rural areas. These communities are officially recognized as Scheduled Castes (SC) by the Indian government, but they usually prefer to refer to themselves as Dalits. In the rest of this chapter, the word is not italicized in order to reflect its integration into common usage and vocabulary.
- 2.
Adivasi is a term referred to the indigenous population residing in India. In Hindi, it means “the original inhabitants of the land”. The term adivasi is preferred by the representative civil society rather than the word ‘tribal’ and the administrative category of Scheduled Tribes (ST). Comprising approximately 8.6% of the total population of India (Census of India, 2011), Adivasis are spread across Central India and North Eastern India. The Maoists have their stronghold in these parts of India with maximum participation of Adivasis in their guerrilla army, liberated zones, and in their mid-level leadership. For the same reasons explained in relation to the use of the word dalit, the term adivasi and its variations are not italicized in this chapter.
- 3.
Jantana Sarkar is the Gondi (the local language spoken by the Adivasis in Bastar) word for Revolutionary People’s Committee-RPC. In other parts of India, it is referred to as RPC; however, in DKZSC, the Maoist party decided to give it a local name. Every village council has its own RPC, and each RPC has its own constitution.
- 4.
Red Corridor is a term that refers to the geographical spread of the Maoist movement across various states in India. The Red Corridor primarily looks at the spread and movement of Maoist party members (both combatants and other overground workers) across these districts and the dominance of the Maoist guerrillas.
References
Bagchi, S. (2012). Maoist: Gudsa Usendi alias Sukhdev talks to Suvojit Bagchi. In R. Jeffery, R. Sen, & P. Singh (Eds.), More than Maoism: Politics, policies and insurgencies in South Asia (pp. 401–406). New Delhi: Manohar Publishers.
Balagopal, K. (2006). Maoist movement in Andhra Pradesh. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3183–3187.
Balagopal, K. (2008). The NHRC on Salwa Judum: A most friendly inquiry. Economic and Political Weekly, 43(51), 10–14.
Banerjee, S. (2006). Beyond Naxalbari. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3159–3162.
Banerjee, S. (2009). In the wake of Naxalbari: Four decades of a simmering revolution (3rd ed.). Kolkata: Sahita Samsad.
Benbabaali, D. (2016). From the peasant armed struggle to the Telangana state: Changes and continuities in a south Indian region’s uprisings. Contemporary South Asia, 24(2), 184–196.
Bhadra, S. (2012). Peace-talk process in Junglemahal: A brief overview. In B. Roy (Ed.), War and peace in Junglemahal: People state and Maoists (pp. 60–67). Kolkata: Setu Prakashani.
Bhaduri, A., et al. (2009). Fact finding on Lalgarh. Economic and Political Weekly, 44(16) 4 & 110.
Bhatia, B. (2005). The Naxalite movement in Central Bihar. Economic and Political Weekly, 40(15), 1536–1549.
Bhatia, B. (2006). On armed resistance. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3179–3183.
Bhaumik, S. (2010, March 1). Code Red. The Caravan. Retrieved 1 June 2020 from https://caravanmagazine.in/perspectives/code-red
Brass, P. R. (1973). Political parties of the radical left in South Asian politics. In M. F. Franda & P. R. Brass (Eds.), Radical politics in South Asia (pp. 3–116). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Census of India. (2011). 2011 census data. Retrieved 20 Sept 2020 from https://censusindia.gov.in/2011-Common/CensusData2011.html
Chakravorty, S. (2013). The price of land: Acquisition, conflict, consequence. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
CPI (Maoist). (2004a). Party constitution, Central Committee, CPI (Maoist). Retrieved 10 Sept 2020 from https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/maoist/documents/papers/partyconstitution.htm
CPI (Maoist). (2004b). Strategy and tactics of the Indian revolution. Retrieved 10 Sept 2020 from http://bannedthought.net/India/CPI-Maoist-Docs/Founding/StrategyTactics-pamphlet.pdf
CPI (Maoist). (2007). Political and organisational review. Retrieved 10 Sept 2020 from http://bannedthought.net/India/CPI-Maoist-Docs/NinthCongress/PoliticalAndOrganizationalReview-2007-Feb-Eng-View-OCR.pdf
D’Mello, B. (2018). India after Naxalbari: Unfinished history. New York: Monthly Review Press.
Dasgupta, B. (1973). Naxalite armed struggles and the annihilation campaign in rural areas. Economic and Political Weekly, 8(4/6), 173–188.
Desai, A. R. (Ed.). (1986). Agrarian struggles in India after Independence. New Delhi/New York: Oxford University Press.
Dhanagare, D. N. (1974). Social origins of the peasant insurrection in Telangana (1946–51). Contributions to Indian Sociology, 8(1), 109–134.
Fazal, T. (2015). ‘Peace talks’ as strategic deployment: The state, Maoists and political violence in India. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 26, 39–51. https://doi.org/10.3318/isia.2015.26.8.
Fernandes, W. (2007). Singur and the displacement scenario. Economic and Political Weekly, 42(3), 203–206.
Frankel, F. R. (2005). India’s political economy 1947–2004: The gradual revolution (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Ghosh, J., & Chandrashekar, C. P. (2002). The market that failed: Neoliberal economic reforms in India. New Delhi: LeftWord Books.
GOI, Ministry of Home Affairs. (2008). Annual report 2008–2009. Retrieved 15 July 2020 from https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/AR%28E%290809.pdf
GOI, Ministry of Home Affairs. (2009). Annual report 2009–2010. Retrieved 15 July 2020 from https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/AR%28E%290910.pdf
GOI, Planning Commission. (2008). Development challenges in extremist affected areas: Report of an expert group to Planning Commission. Retrieved 3 June 2020 from http://planningcommission.gov.in/reports/publications/rep_dce.pdf
GOI, Press Information Bureau. (2006, 13 April). ‘Focus on good governance, reducing deprivation and alienation’: Prime Minister. Concluding remarks at the 2nd meeting of the Standing Committee of Chief Ministers on naxalism. Retrieved 15 July 2020 from http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=17128
Gudavarthy, A. (2014). Maoism, democracy and globalisation: Cross-currents in Indian politics. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India.
Guha, R. (2007). Adivasis, Naxalites and Indian democracy. Economic and Political Weekly, 42(32), 3305–3312.
Guha, R., et al. (2006). Salwa Judum: War in the heart of India: Excerpts from the report by the independent citizens initiative. Social Scientist, 34(7/8), 47–61.
Gupta, T. D. (2006). Maoism in India: Ideology, programme and armed struggle. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3172–3176.
Haragopal, G. (2017). Maoist movement: context and concerns. Economic and Political Weekly, 52(21), 71–76.
Hasnain, N. (1983). Tribal India today. New Delhi: Harnam Publications.
IANS. (2020, May 5). Anti-Maoist Ops: 8 ITBP bns to be permanently based in Chhattisgarh. Outlook Magazine. Retrieved 5 May 2020 from https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/antimaoist-ops-8-itbp-bns-to-be-permanently-based-in-chhattigarh-ians-exclusive/1822517
Ismail, F., & Shah, A. (2015). Class struggle, the Maoists, and the indigenous question in Nepal and India. Economic and Political Weekly, 50(35), 112–123.
Kennedy, J. (2015). The socioeconomic determinants of natural resource conflict: Minerals and Maoist insurgency in India. Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal, 28(2), 149–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2014.941447.
Kennedy, J., & Purushotham, S. (2012). Beyond Naxalbari: A comparative analysis of Maoist insurgency and counterinsurgency in independent India. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 54(4), 832–862.
Kunnath, G. J. (2009). Smouldering Dalit fires in Bihar, India. Dialectical Anthropology, 33(3–4), 309–325.
Majumdar, A. (1993). Peasant protest in Indian politics: Tebhaga movement in Bengal. New Delhi: NIB Publishers.
Maringanti, A. (2010). Talks between the Maoists and the state: Learning from the Andhra experience. Economic and Political Weekly, 45(34), 39–43.
Miklian, J. (2009). The purification hunt: The Salwa Judum counterinsurgency in Chhattisgarh, India. Dialectical Anthropology, 33, 441–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10624-009-9138-1.
Miklian, J. (2012). The political ecology of war in Maoist India. Politics, Religion and Ideology, 13(4), 561–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2012.732017.
Milbert, I. (2012). Building the economy: 1947–1980. In C. Jaffrelot (Ed.), India since 1950: Society, politics, economy and culture (pp. 84–104). New Delhi: Yatra Books.
Mohanty, M. (2006). Challenges of revolutionary violence: The Naxalite movement in perspective. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3163–3168.
Mohanty, M. (2015). Red and green: Five decades of Indian Maoist movement. Kolkata: Setu Prakashani.
Mohanty, M. (2017). Adivasi Swaraj is the answer to violence. Economic and Political Weekly, 52(21), 66–70.
Mukhopadhyay, A. K. (2006). Through the eyes of the police. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3227–3233.
Navlakha, G. (2017). A savage war for “development”. Economic and Political Weekly, 52(21), 61–65.
Oetken, J. L. (2009). Counterinsurgency against Naxalites in India. In S. Ganguly & D. P. Fidler (Eds.), India and counterinsurgency: Lessons learned (pp. 127–151). Abingdon/Oxon: Routledge.
Poyam, A. (2020, February 14). Stepsons of the soil. The Caravan. Retrieved 9 May 2020 from https://caravanmagazine.in/conflict/in-battles-between-paramilitary-insurgents-victims-from-same-marginalised-group
Ram, M. (1973). The Telengana peasant armed struggle, 1946–51. Economic and Political Weekly, 8(23), 1025–1032.
Ramana, P. V. (2011, December). Maoist people’s liberation Guerrilla Army. IDSA Comments. Retrieved 1 June 2020 from https://idsa.in/idsacomments/MaoistPeoplesLiberationGuerrillaArmy_pvramana_121211
Ramana, P. V. (2013). Taming India’s Maoists: Surrender and rehabilitation. Strategic Analysis, 37(6), 716–728. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2013.847042.
Rediff News Bureau. (2010, August 10). Azad’s killing: Some unanswered questions. news.rediff.com. Retrieved 21 July 2020 from https://news.rediff.com/special/2010/aug/10/special-azads-death-some-unanswered-questions.htm
Rijiju, K. (2014, July 30). Naxals having links with other outfits. Ministry of Home Affairs. India. Parliament, Rajya Sabha. Unstarred Question No. 226. Retrieved 8 Nov 2020 from https://www.mha.gov.in/MHA1/Par2017/pdfs/par2014-pdfs/rs-300714/2206.pdf
Sen, S. (1982). Peasant movements in India: Mid-nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Kolkata: K. P. Bagchi.
Sethi, A. (2010, February 6). Green Hunt: The anatomy of an operation. The Hindu. Retrieved 21 July 2020 from https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/Green-Hunt-the-anatomy-of-an-operation/article16812797.ece
Shah, A. (2013). The intimacy of insurgency: Beyond coercion, greed or grievance in Maoist India. Economy and Society, 42(3), 480–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/03085147.2013.783662.
Shah, A., Lerche, J., Axelby, R., Benbabaali, D., Donegan, B., Raj, J., & Thakur, V. (2018). Ground down by growth: Tribe, caste, class and inequality in 21st century India. London: Pluto Press.
Singh, P. (2016). Naxalite movement in India. New Delhi: Rupa Publications India.
South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP). (n.d.-a). Left wing extremist group: Maoist Communist Centre (MCC). South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP). Retrieved 5 Sept 2020 from https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/MCC.htm
South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP). (n.d.-b). Private caste armies in Bihar. South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP). Retrieved 5 Sept 2020 from https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/Private_armies.htm
Subramanian, K. S. (2010). State response to Maoist violence in India: A critical assessment. Economic and Political Weekly, 45(32), 23–26.
Sundar, N. (2006). Bastar, Maoism and Salwa Judum. Economic and Political Weekly, 41(29), 3187–3192.
Sundar, N. (2007). Subalterns and sovereigns: An anthropological history of Bastar (1854–2006). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Sundar, N. (2016). The burning forest: India’s war in Bastar. New Delhi: Juggernaut.
Sundarayya, P. (1973a). Telangana People’s armed struggle, 1946–51: Part four: Background to a momentous decision. Social Scientist, 1(10), 22–52.
Sundarayya, P. (1973b). Telangana People’s armed struggle, 1946–51. Part three: Pitted against the Indian army. Social Scientist, 1(9), 23–46.
Sundarayya, P. (1973c). Telangana people’s armed struggle, 1946–1951. Part one: Historical setting. Social Scientist, 1(7), 3–19.
Sundarayya, P. (1973d). Telangana people’s armed struggle, 1946–1951. Part two: First phase and its lessons. Social Scientist, 1(8), 18–42.
Thakor, H. (2018, December 8). Srikakulam movement – 50th anniversary. Frontier Weekly. Retrieved 7 Aug 2020 from https://frontierweekly.com/views/dec-18/8-12-18-Srikakulam%20Movement.html
Thapar, R. (2019, January 29). ‘Urban Naxals’: It’s essential that right to dissent is not discarded in India, says Romila Thapar. Scroll.in. Retrieved 2 Sept 2020 from https://scroll.in/article/911133/full-text-romila-thapar-says-it-is-essential-that-the-right-to-dissent-in-india-is-not-discarded
Tyagi, J. (2016). Organizational structure and class: Examining resilience in the Maoist movement in India (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved 7 Aug 2020 from DSpace – Digital Repository Unimib. https://ir.stonybrook.edu/xmlui/handle/11401/76812
Varadarajan, S. (2010, April 14). A ceasefire will create conducive atmosphere for talks: Azad. The Hindu. Retrieved 2 Oct 2020 from https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/A-ceasefire-will-create-conducive-atmosphere-for-talks-Azad/article15519652.ece
Venugopal, N. (2013). Understanding Maoists: Notes of a participant observer from Andhra Pradesh. Kolkata: Setu Prakashani.
Verghese, A. (2016). British rule and tribal revolts in India: The curious case of Bastar. Modern Asian Studies, 50(5), 1619–1644. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X14000687.
Viswanathan, A. (2016, July 3). Filming the revolution. The Week. Retrieved 8 June 2020 from https://www.theweek.in/theweek/cover/naxalism-cinema.html
Sen, S. (1972). Agrarian struggle in Bengal: 1946-47. New Delhi. People’s Publishing House.
Further Readings
Acharya, B. (2012). Charu Mazumdar: Collective works. Kolkata: Radical Impression.
Banerjee, S. (1984). India’s simmering revolution: The Naxalite uprising. London: Zed Books.
Bharadwaj, A. (2020). The death script: Dreams and delusions in naxal country. New Delhi: Fourth Estate.
Bhukya, B. (2017). The roots of the periphery. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Bose, P. (Ed.). (2010). Maoism: A critique from the Left. New Delhi:LeftWord Books
Chitralekha. (2012). Ordinary people, extraordinary violence: Naxalites and Hindu extremists in India. New Delhi: Routledge.
Gandhy, A. (2012). Scripting the change: Selected writings of Anuradha Gandhy. New Delhi: Daanish Books.
Kerketta, J. (2018). Land of the roots. New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith.
Majumdar, A. (2011). The Tebhaga movement: Politics of peasant protest in Bengal 1946-1950. New Delhi: Aakar Books.
Mukherjee, N. (2014). The lives of others. Gurgaon: Vintage Books. Random House India.
Narendra. (2018). Bastar dispatches: A passage through the wild. Noida: HarperCollins.
Paul, B. (2014). The first Naxal: An authorised biography of Kanu Sanyal. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India.
Rao, G. K. (2010). Untouchable spring (trans: Uma, A., Sridhar, M.). Hyderabad: Orient BlackSwan.
Ray, R. (2012). The Maoists and their ideology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Savyasaachi. (2018). Intractable conflicts in contemporary India: Narratives and social movements. Abingdon/Oxon: Routledge.
Shah, A. (2018). Nightmarch: A journey into India’s naxal heartlands. London: Hurst & Co..
Shah, A., & Jain, D. (2017). Naxalbari at its golden jubilee: Fifty recent books on the Maoist movement in India. Modern South Asian Studies, 51(4), 1165–1219. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X16000792.
Singh, R. (2018). 13 years: A Naxalite’s prison diary. New Delhi: Navayana Publishing.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Kaushik, V., Ripamonti, D. (2021). Maoist Conflict in India. In: The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_111-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_111-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-11795-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-11795-5
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Political Science and International StudiesReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences