Skip to main content

Abstract

Gun violence persists as a devastating public health crisis in the United States. Each year, an estimated 1,600 children die from gun violence, another 6,200 survive gunshot injuries, and thousands more are indirectly impacted (e.g., children who have witnessed gunfire, heard gunshots, or know a friend or family member who has been shot). Though there is notably little research in the area of gun violence prevention in comparison to other public health issues of this magnitude, the existing research underscores the breadth of childhood exposure to gun violence and its direct relationship to poor mental health outcomes. This section ends with a discussion of the implications of this relationship for clinicians and educators: individuals engaged in the prevention of and response to gun violence exposure and, by extension, the promotion of the mental health and well-being of children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alisic, E., Zalta, A. K., van Wesel, F., Larsen, S. E., Hafstad, G. S., Hassanpour, K., & Smid, G. E. (2014). Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: Meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 204(5), 335–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alisic, E., Krishna, R. N., Groot, A., & Frederick, J. W. (2015). Children’s mental health and well-being after parental intimate partner homicide: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 18(4), 328–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, B., Delaney-Black, V., Hannigan, J., Ager, J., Sokol, R., & Covington, C. (2005). Somatic complaints in children and community violence exposure. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 341–348. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200510000-00001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booty, M., O’Dwyer, J. O., Webster, D., McCourt, A., & Crifasi, C. (2019). Describing a “mass shooting”: The role of databases in understanding burden. Injury Epidemiology, 6(47), 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings?: A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brendtro, L. K., & Long, N. J. (1994). Violence begets violence: Breaking conflict cycles. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Problems, 3(1), 2–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellví, P., Miranda, M. A., Parés, B. O., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., … Alonso, J. (2017). Exposure to violence, a risk for suicide in youths and young adults. A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 135(3), 195–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning. (2016). Retrieved at: www.casel.org

  • DeFoster, R., & Swalve, N. (2018). Guns, culture or mental health? Framing mass shootings as a public health crisis. Health Communication, 33(10), 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1350907.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everytown for Gun Safety. (2019). Ten years of mass shootings in the United States. EverytownResearch.Org. Retrieved January 11, 2020, from https://everytownresearch.org/massshootingsreports/mass-shootings-in-america-2009-2019/

  • Farrell, A. D., Mehari, K. R., Kramer-Kuhn, A., & Goncy, E. A. (2014). The impact of victimization and witnessing violence on physical aggression among high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 85(4), 1694–1710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). Crime in the United States, 2017. Clarksburg: The FBI’s UCR Program Services Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, J. L., & Browning, C. R. (2014). Effects of exposure to violence with a weapon during adolescence on adult hypertension. Annals of Epidemiology, 24(3), 193–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2013.12.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, P. J., Tompsett, C. J., Braciszewski, J. M., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Baltes, B. B. (2009). Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 227–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. A., & DeLateur, M. J. (2013). Mass shootings in America: Moving beyond Newtown. Homicide Studies, 18(1), 125–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. A., & Savage, J. (2009). Mass murder goes to college: An examination of changes on college campuses following Virginia Tech. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(10), 1465–1485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, N. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2012). How persistent fear and anxiety can affect young children’s learning, behavior, and health. In D. M. Patel & R. M. Taylor (Eds.), Social and economic costs of violence: Workshop summary (pp. 69–83). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham-Bermann, S. A., Gruber, G., Howell, K. H., & Girz, L. (2009). Factors discriminating among profiles of resilience and psychopathology in children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV). Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(9), 648–660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, A., Hertz, M., & Simon, T. (2011). Impacts of metal detector use in schools: Insights from 15 years of research. Journal of School Health, 81(2), 100–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huesmann, L. R. (2012). The contagion of violence: The extent, the processes, and the outcomes. In D. M. Patel & R. M. Taylor (Eds.), Social and economic costs of violence: Workshop summary (pp. 63–69). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Interdisciplinary Group on Preventing School and Community Violence. (2013). December 2012 Connecticut school shooting position statement. Journal of School Violence, 12(2), 119–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klarevas, L. (2016). Rampage nation: Securing America from mass shootings. Amherst: Prometheus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lourenço, L. M., Baptista, M. N., Senra, L. X., Almeida, A. A., Basílio, C., & de Castro Bhona, F. M. (2013). Consequences of exposure to domestic violence for children: A systematic review of the literature. Paidéia, 23(55), 263–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, A. R., Whitaker, K., French, W. P., Richardson, L. P., Wasse, J. K., & McCauley, E. (2016). Collaborative care in schools: Enhancing integration and impact in youth mental health. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 9(3–4), 148–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGee, Z. T., Logan, K., Samuel, J., & Nunn, T. (2017). A multivariate analysis of gun violence among urban youth: The impact of direct victimization, indirect victimization, and victimization among peers. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1328772. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017.1328772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naghavi, M., Marczak, L. B., Kutz, M., Shackelford, K. A., Arora, M., Miller-Petrie, M., Aichour, M. T. E., Akseer, N., Al-Raddadi, R. M., Alam, K., Alghnam, S. A., Antonio, C. A. T., Aremu, O., Arora, A., Asadi-Lari, M., Assadi, R., Atey, T. M., Avila-Burgos, L., Awasthi, A., … Murray, C. J. L. (2018). Global mortality from firearms, 1990–2016. JAMA, 320(8), 792–814. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.10060.

  • Petty, J. K., Henry, M. C. W., Nance, M. L., & Ford, H. R. (2019). Firearm injuries and children: Position statement of the American Pediatric Surgical Association. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 54(7), 1269–1276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2019.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plumb, J. I., Bush, K. A., & Kersevich, S. E. (2016). Trauma-sensitive schools: An evidence-based approach. School Social Work Journal, 40(2), 37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajan, S., Branas, C. C., Hargarten, S., & Allegrante, J. P. (2018). Funding for gun violence research is key to the health and safety of the nation. American Journal of Public Health, 108(2), 194–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rajan, S., Branas, C. C., Myers, D., & Agrawal, N. (2019). Youth exposure to violence involving a gun: Evidence for adverse childhood experience classification. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 42(4), 646–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramratnam, S. K., Han, Y.-Y., Rosas-Salazar, C., Forno, E., Brehm, J. M., Rosser, F., Marsland, A. L., Colón-Semidey, A., Alvarez, M., Miller, G. E., Acosta-Pérez, E., Canino, G., & Celedón, J. C. (2015). Exposure to gun violence and asthma among children in Puerto Rico. Respiratory Medicine, 109(8), 975–981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2015.05.011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schaechter, J., & Alvarez, P. G. (2016). Growing up – Or not – With gun violence. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 63(5), 813–826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2016.06.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schildkraut J. (Ed.). (2018). Mass shootings in America: Understanding the debates, causes, and responses. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selker, H. P., Selker, K. M., & Schwartz, M. D. (2013). Gun violence is a health crisis: Physicians’ responsibilities. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(5), 601–602. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-013-2408-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shackleton, N., Jamal, F., Viner, R. M., Dickson, K., Patton, G., & Bonell, C. (2016). School-based interventions going beyond health education to promote adolescent health: Systematic review of reviews. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(4), 382–3896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, J. B. (2017). Identifying and responding to suicide risk in schools. Psychiatric Annals, 47(8), 401–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, S. A., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Hillis, S. D., Klevens, J., & Houry, D. (2015). Violence in the United States: Status, challenges, and opportunities. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 314(5), 478–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Fisher, B. W. (2016). Visible school security measures and student academic performance, attendance, and post-secondary aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(1), 195–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, H. A., Finkelhor, D., & Henly, M. (2018). Exposure to family and friend homicide in a nationally representative sample of youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, published online ahead of print.

    Google Scholar 

  • WISQARS (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System)|Injury Center|CDC. (2019, September 18). https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/index.html

  • Yang, C., Chan, M., & Ma, T. (2020). School-wide social emotional learning (SEL) and bullying victimization: Moderating role of school climate in elementary, middle, and high schools. Journal of School Psychology, 82, 49–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Further Reading

  • Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings?: A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalesan, B., Lagast, K., Villarreal, M., Pino, E., Fagan, J., & Gaela, S. (2016). School shootings during 2013–2015 in the USA. Injury Prevention, 23(5), 321–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payne, A. A., & Welch, K. (2018). The effect of school conditions on the use of restorative justice in schools. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16(2), 224–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rajan, S., & Branas, C. C. (2018). Arming schoolteachers: What do we know? Where do we go from here? American Journal of Public Health, 108(7), 860–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sonali Rajan .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Section Editor information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Myers, D., Müller, T., Rajan, S. (2021). Gun Violence. In: Lester, J.N., O'Reilly, M. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Critical Perspectives on Mental Health. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12852-4_58-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12852-4_58-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-12852-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-12852-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Behavioral Science and PsychologyReference Module Humanities and Social SciencesReference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics