Abstract
Environmental justice is a complex issue requiring joint efforts from various actors, including collective action from the general public. Echoing an urgent call for greater attention to environmental justice in the field of environmental communication, the current research examined one possible way to motivate collective action for environmental justice, that is, via the portrayals of victims and the emotions the portrayals convey. An experiment with a 2 (victim’s photo: presence vs. absence) × 2 (industry’s intent: presence vs. absence) between-subjects factorial design was conducted. The results show that emotions, including moral outrage, compassion, and distress, mediated the effects of the photo condition on collective action intentions. These findings contribute to the literature by connecting victim portrayals with collective action, expanding the array of message-induced emotions in predicting collective action, and furthering the investigation of collective action in the environmental justice context.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data and message stimuli are available from the author upon request.
Notes
The direction and significance of the results remained unchanged when the 52 participants were included in the analyses.
The direction and significance of the results remained unchanged when these covariates were excluded in all analyses.
References
Aguilera-Ontiveros A, Contreras-Manrique JC (2008) The role of emotions in environmental decision making: a formal modeling framework. In: Paderes AL, Iglesias CH (eds) Agent-based modeling in natural resource management. INSISOC, Spain
Ahola AS, Hellström Å, Christianson SÅ (2010) Is justice really blind?Effects of crime descriptions, defendant gender and appearance, and legal practitioner gender on sentences and defendant evaluations in a mock trial. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 17:304–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218710903566896
Ajzen I (1991) The theory of planned behavior Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50:179-211 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Ard K (2015) Trends in exposure to industrial air toxins for different racial and socioeconomic groups: a spatial and temporal examination of environmental inequality in the US from 1995 to 2004. Social Science Research 53:375–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.06.019
Bamberg S, Moser G (2007) Twenty years after Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera: a new meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology 27:14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.12.002
Barrett LF (2006) Solving the emotion paradox: categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10:20–46. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2
Bartsch A, Oliver MB, Nitsch C, Scherr S (2018) Inspired by the paralympics: effects of empathy on audience interest in para-sports and on the destigmatization of persons with disabilities. Commun Res 45:525–553. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215626984
Batson CD (1987) Prosocial motivation: is it ever truly altruistic? Adv Exp Soc Psychol 20:65–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60412-8
Batson CD (2011) Altruism in humans. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Batson CD, Batson JG, Slingsby JK, Harrell KL, Peekna HM, Todd RM (1991) Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61:413–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.413
Batson CD, Early S, Salvarani G (1997a) Perspective taking: Imagining how another feels versus imaging how you would feel. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23:751–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237008
Batson CD, Sager K, Garst E, Kang M, Rubchinsky K, Dawson K (1997b) Is empathy-induced helping due to self–other merging? J Pers Soc Psychol 73:495–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.495
Batson CD, Kennedy CL, Nord LA, Stocks EL, Fleming D'YA, Marzette CM, Lishner DA, Hayes RE, Kolchinsky LM, Zerger T (2007) Anger at unfairness: is it moral outrage? Eur J Soc Psychol 37:1272–1285. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.434
Berenguer J (2007) The effect of empathy in proenvironmental attitudes and behaviors. Environment and Behavior 39:269–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916506292937
Blumer H (1939) Collective behavior. In: McClung Lee A (ed) Principles of sociology. Barnes & Noble, New York, NY, pp 219–288
Burt CDB, Strongman K (2005) Use of images in charity advertising: improving donations and compliance rates. International Journal of Organisational Behaviour 8:571–580
Campbell HE, Peck LR, Tschudi MK (2010) Justice for all? A cross-time analysis of toxics release inventory facility location. Review of Policy Research 27:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2009.00424.x
Chandler J, Rosenzweig C, Moss AJ, Robinson J, Litman L (2019) Online panels in social science research: Expanding sampling methods beyond Mechanical Turk. Behav Res Methods 51:2022–2038. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01273-7
Chmielewski M, Kucker SC (2020) An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Soc Psychol Pers Sci 11:464–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619875149
Cox JR (2016) Environmental communication and the public sphere, 4th edn. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA
Davis MH (2015) Empathy and prosocial behavior. In: Schroeder DA, Graziano WG (eds) The Oxford handbook of prosocial behavior. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp 282–305
Downey L, Hawkins B (2008) Race, income, and environmental inequality in the United States. Sociological Perspectives 51:759–781. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2008.51.4.759
Dussich J, Underwood T, Peterson D (2003) New definitions for victimology and victim services: a theoretical note. The Victimologist 7:1–2
Eisenberg N, Eggum ND, Di Giunta L (2010) Empathy-related responding: associations with prosocial behavior, aggression, and intergroup relations. Social Issues and Policy Review 4:143–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x
Entman RM (1993) Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication 43:51–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x
Faber D (2008) Capitalizing on environmental injustice: the polluter-industrial complex in the age of globalization. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, MD
Fattori F, Pozzi M, Marzana D, Mannarini T (2015) A proposal for an integrated model of prosocial behavior and collective action as the expression of global citizenship. European Journal of Social Psychology 45:907–917. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2154
Fernando JW, Kashima Y, Laham SM (2014) Multiple emotions: a person-centered approach to the relationship between intergroup emotion and action orientation. Emotion 14:722–732. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036103
Fiske ST, Cuddy AJC, Glick P, Xu J (2002) A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
Goetz JL, Keltner D, Simon-Thomas E (2010) Compassion: an evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychol Bull 136:351–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807
Gordijn EH, Yzerbyt V, Wigboldus D, Dumont M (2006) Emotional reactions to harmful intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology 36:15–30. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.296
Haidt J (2003) The moral emotions. In: Davidson RJ, Scherer KR, Goldsmith HH (eds) Handbook of affective sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, pp. 852–870
Harth NS, Leach CW, Kessler T (2013) Guilt, anger, and pride about in-group environmental behaviour: different emotions predict distinct intentions. Journal of Environmental Psychology 34:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.12.005
Hayes AF (2017) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: a regression-based approach, 2nd edn. The Guilford Press, New York, NY
Hester RT Jr (1987) Participatory design and environmental justice: Pas de deux or time to change partners? Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 4:289–300
Huang G, London J (2012) Mapping cumulative environmental effects, social vulnerability, and health in the San Joaquin Valley, California. American Journal of Public Health 102:830–832. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300466
Iyer A, Ryan MK (2009) Why do men and women challenge gender discrimination in the workplace? The role of group status and in-group identification in predicting pathways to collective action. J Soc Issues 65:791–814. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01625.x
James TK, Zagefka H (2017) The effects of group memberships of victims and perpetrators in humanly caused disasters on charitable donations to victims. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 47:446–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12452
Jasper JM (2010) Social movement theory today: toward a theory of action? Sociol Compass 4:965–976. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2010.00329.x
Jasper JM (2011) Emotions and social movements: twenty years of theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology 37:285–303. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150015
Kogut T, Ritov I (2005) The “identified victim” effect: an identified group, or just a single individual? J Behav Decis Mak 18:157–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.492
Kreger M, Sargent K, Arons A, Standish M, Brindis CD (2011) Creating an environmental justice framework for policy change in childhood asthma: a grassroots to treetops approach. American Journal of Public Health 101:S208–S216
Lazarus RS (1991) Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Leshner G, Vultee F, Bolls PD, Moore J (2010) When a fear appeal isn’t just a fear appeal: The effects of graphic anti-tobacco messages Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 54:485–507 doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2010.498850
Lotz S, Okimoto TG, Schlösser T, Fetchenhauer D (2011) Punitive versus compensatory reactions to injustice: Emotional antecedents to third-party interventions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47:477–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.10.004
Lu H (2016) The effects of emotional appeals and gain versus loss framing in communicating sea star wasting disease Science Communication 38:143-169 doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547015619173
Lu H, Schuldt JP (2015) Exploring the role of incidental emotions in support for climate change policy. Climatic Change 131:719–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1443-x
Lu H, Schuldt JP (2016) Compassion for climate change victims and support for mitigation policy. Journal of Environmental Psychology 45:192–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.01.007
Lupoli MJ, Jampol L, Oveis C (2017) Lying because we care: compassion increases prosocial lying. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 146:1026–1042. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000315
Mackie DM, Devos T, Smith ER (2000) Intergroup emotions: explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79:602–616 doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602
Mallett RK, Huntsinger JR, Sinclair S, Swim JK (2008) Seeing through their eyes: When majority group members take collective action on behalf of an outgroup. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 11:451–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430208095400
McAdam D, McCarthy JD, Zald MN (1996) Comparative perspectives on social movements. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
McGurty EM (2000) Warren County, NC, and the emergence of the environmental justice movement: Unlikely coalitions and shared meanings in local collective action. Society & Natural Resources 13:373–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/089419200279027
Miller DA, Cronin T, Garcia AL, Branscombe NR (2009) The relative impact of anger and efficacy on collective action is affected by feelings of fear. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 12:445–462. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209105046
Montada L, Schneider A (1989) Justice and emotional reactions to the disadvantaged. Social Justice Research 3:313–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01048081
Myrick JG, Oliver MB (2015) Laughing and crying: mixed emotions, compassion, and the effectiveness of a youtube PSA about skin cancer. Health Communication 30:820–829. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.845729
Nabi RL (2003) Exploring the framing effects of emotion: do discrete emotions differentially influence information accessibility, information seeking, and policy preference? Commun Res 30:224–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650202250881
Nerlich B, Koteyko N, Brown B (2010) Theory and language of climate change communication Wiley Interdisciplinary. Reviews: Climate Change 1:97–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.002
O'Mara EM, Jackson LE, Batson CD, Gaertner L (2011) Will moral outrage stand up?: distinguishing among emotional reactions to a moral violation. European Journal of Social Psychology 41:173–179. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.754
Osbaldiston R, Schott JP (2012) Environmental sustainability and behavioral science: meta-analysis of proenvironmental behavior experiments. Environment and Behavior 44:257–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916511402673
Oveis C, Horberg EJ, Keltner D (2010) Compassion, pride, and social intuitions of self-other similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 98:618–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017628
Padula AM, Tager IB, Carmichael SL, Hammond SK, Lurmann F, Shaw GM (2013) The association of ambient air pollution and traffic exposures with selected congenital anomalies in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Am J Epidemiol 177:1074–1085. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws367
Perrine RM, Heather S (2000) Effects of picture and even-a-penny-will-help appeals on anonymous donations to charity. Psychol Rep 86:551–559. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.86.2.551
Quigley BM, Tedeschi JT (1996) Mediating effects of blame attributions on feelings of anger. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22:1280–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672962212008
Reese G, Jacob L (2015) Principles of environmental justice and pro-environmental action: a two-step process model of moral anger and responsibility to act. Environmental Science & Policy 51:88–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.03.011
Saab R, Tausch N, Spears R, Cheung WY (2015) Acting in solidarity: testing an extended dual pathway model of collective action by bystander group members. British Journal of Social Psychology 54:539–560. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12095
Schroeder DA, Graziano WG (2015) The field of prosocial behavior: an introduction and overview. In: Schroeder DA, Graziano WG (eds) The Oxford handbook of prosocial behavior. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, pp 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399813.013.32
Schultz T, Fielding K, Newton F, Louis W (2018) The effect of images on community engagement with sustainable stormwater management: the role of integral disgust and sadness. Journal of Environmental Psychology 59:26–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.003
Schwartz NA, von Glascoe CA, Torres V, Ramos L, Soria-Delgado C (2015) “Where they (live, work and) spray”: pesticide exposure, childhood asthma and environmental justice among Mexican-American farmworkers. Health Place 32:83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2014.12.016
Shen L (2010) Mitigating psychological reactance: the role of message-induced empathy in persuasion. Human Communication Research 36:397–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01381.x
Shi J, Hao Z, Saeri AK, Cui LJ (2015) The dual-pathway model of collective action: Impacts of types of collective action and social identity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 18:45–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214524288
Slovic P (2007) “If I look at the mass I will never act”: psychic numbing and genocide. Judgment and Decision Making 2:79–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8647-1_3
Stürmer S, Snyder M, Kropp A, Siem B (2006) Empathy-motivated helping: the moderating role of group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32:943–956. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206287363
Swim J, Bloodhart B (2014) Portraying the perils to polar bears: The role of empathic and objective perspective-taking toward animals in climate change communication. Environmental Communication 9:446–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2014.987304
Tausch N, Becker JC, Spears R, Christ O, Saab R, Singh P, Siddiqui RN (2011) Explaining radical group behavior: developing emotion and efficacy routes to normative and nonnormative collective action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101:129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022728
Taylor DE (2000) The rise of the environmental justice paradigm: injustice framing and the social construction of environmental discourses. Am Behav Sci 43:508–580
Thomas EF, McGarty C, Mavor KI (2009) Transforming “apathy into movement”: the role of prosocial emotions in motivating action for social change. Personality and Social Psychology Review 13:310–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309343290
Umphress EE, Simmons AL, Folger R, Ren R, Bobocel R (2013) Observer reactions to interpersonal injustice: the roles of perpetrator intent and victim perception. Journal of Organizational Behavior 34:327–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1801
van Doorn J, Zeelenberg M, Breugelmans SM (2014) Anger and prosocial behavior. Emotion Review 6:261–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914523794
van Zomeren M, Spears R, Fischer AH, Leach CW (2004) Put your money where your mouth is! Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87:649–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.649
van Zomeren M, Postmes T, Spears R (2008) Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: a quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychol Bull 134:504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504
van Zomeren M, Postmes T, Spears R, Bettache K (2011) Can moral convictions motivate the advantaged to challenge social inequality?: extending the social identity model of collective action. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 14:735–753. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210395637
Vining J, Ebreo A (2002) Emerging theoretical and methodological perspective on conservation behavior. In: Bechtel R, Churchman A (eds) Handbook of environmental psychology. Wiley, New York, NY, pp 541–558
Vitaglione GD, Barnett MA (2003) Assessing a new dimension of empathy: empathic anger as a predictor of helping and punishing desires. Motiv Emotion 27:301–325. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026231622102
Walker I, Smith HJ (2002) Relative deprivation: specification, development, and integration. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
West SG, Brown TJ (1975) Physical attractiveness, the severity of the emergency and helping: a field experiment and interpersonal simulation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 11:531–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(75)90004-9
Zagefka H, James T (2015) The psychology of charitable donations to disaster victims and beyond. Social Issues and Policy Review 9:155–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12013
Zagefka H, Noor M, Brown R, de Moura GR, Hopthrow T (2011) Donating to disaster victims: Responses to natural and humanly caused events. European Journal of Social Psychology 41:353–363. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.781
Zagefka H, Noor M, Brown R, Hopthrow T, Moura GR (2012) Eliciting donations to disaster victims: Psychological considerations. Asian J Soc Psychol 15:221–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2012.01378.x
Zak PJ, Barraza JA (2013) The neurobiology of collective action. Frontiers in Neuroscience 7:211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00211
Code availability (software application or custom code)
The code for data analyses is available from the author upon request.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 1451 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lu, H. Exposure to victim portrayals: the role of multiple emotions in influencing collective action intentions for environmental justice. J Environ Stud Sci 11, 548–560 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-020-00660-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-020-00660-3