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Effects of Seven Antifouling Compounds on Photosynthesis and Inorganic Carbon Use in Sugar Kelp Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus)

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Abstract

Macroalgae depend on carbon-concentrating mechanisms (CCMs) to maintain a high photosynthetic activity under conditions of low carbon dioxide (CO2) availability. Because such conditions are prevalent in marine environments, CCMs are important for upholding the macroalgal primary productivity in coastal zones. This study evaluated the effects of seven antifouling compounds—chlorothalonil, DCOIT, dichlofluanid, diuron, irgarol, tolylfluanid, and zinc pyrithione (ZnTP)—on the photosynthesis and CCM of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima (L.)). Concentration-response curves of these toxicants were established using inhibition of carbon incorporation, whereas their effects over time and their inhibition of the CCM were studied using inhibition of O2 evolution. We demonstrate that exposure to all compounds except ZnTP (< 1000 nM) resulted in toxicity to photosynthesis of S. latissima. However, carbon incorporation and O2 evolution differed in their ability to detect toxicity from some of the compounds. Diuron, irgarol, DCOIT, tolylfluanid, and, to some extent, dichlofluanid inhibited carbon incorporation. Chlorothalonil did not inhibit carbon incorporation but clearly inhibited oxygen (O2) evolution. Photosynthesis showed only little recovery during the 2-h postexposure period. Inhibition of photosynthesis even increased after the end of exposure to chlorothalonil and tolylfluanid. Through changes in pH of the medium, toxic effects on the CCM could be studied isolated from photosynthesis effects. The CCM of S. latissima was inhibited by chlorothalonil, DCOIT, dichlofluanid, and tolylfluanid. Such inhibition of the CCM, or the absence thereof, deepens the understanding the mechanism of action of the studied compounds.

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Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the following for funding this study: Swedish Research Council Formas (Project No. 2004-2139), the platform Ecotoxicology: From Gene to Ocean at the University of Gothenburg, and the University of Gothenburg Marine Research Centre. We also express our gratitude toward the staff at Sven Lovén Centre for Marine Sciences (formerly Kristineberg Marine Research Station) for their help and for providing excellent working conditions and to Prof. Thomas Backhaus who gave invaluable help with the nonlinear regression and bootstrap analysis. We also thank the three anonymous reviewers who helped to substantially improve the quality of the manuscript.

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  1. Swedish Chemicals Agency, 172 13, Sundbyberg, Sweden

    Per Johansson

  2. Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, 405 30, Göteborg, Sweden

    Karl Martin Eriksson, Lennart Axelsson & Hans Blanck

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  1. Per Johansson
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Correspondence to Karl Martin Eriksson.

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Johansson, P., Eriksson, K.M., Axelsson, L. et al. Effects of Seven Antifouling Compounds on Photosynthesis and Inorganic Carbon Use in Sugar Kelp Saccharina latissima (Linnaeus). Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 63, 365–377 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-012-9778-z

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