Abstract
Collision with wind turbines is a conservation concern for eagles with population abundance implications. The development of acoustic alerting technologies to deter eagles from entering hazardous air spaces is a potentially significant mitigation strategy to diminish associated morbidity and mortality risks. As a prelude to the engineering of deterrence technologies, auditory function was assessed in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), as well as in red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) to a comprehensive battery of clicks and tone bursts varying in level and frequency were acquired to evaluate response thresholds, as well as suprathreshold response characteristics of wave I of the ABR, which represents the compound potential of the VIII cranial nerve. Sensitivity curves exhibited an asymmetric convex shape similar to those of other avian species, response latencies decreased exponentially with increasing stimulus level and response amplitudes grew with level in an orderly manner. Both species were responsive to a frequency band at least four octaves wide, with a most sensitive frequency of 2 kHz, and a high-frequency limit of approximately 5.7 kHz in bald eagles and 8 kHz in red-tailed hawks. Findings reported here provide a framework within which acoustic alerting signals might be developed.
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Notes
The number of diurnal raptor orders is in a state of flux as both the North American Classification Committee (NACC) and the South American Classification Committee (SACC) of the American Ornithological Society have categorized New World Vultures (Cathartidae) in a separate order, the Cathartiformes, whereas the International Ornithologists’ Union currently classifies Cathartidae as a family within Accipitriformes (Chesser et al. 2019; Remsen et al. 2019; Gill and Donsker 2019). Also, Cariamiformes (seriemas), a basal order within Australaves, have been classified as diurnal raptors (Jarvis et al. 2014), although they are predominantly flightless predators.
The International Ornithologists’ Union recognizes Tyto alba pratincola as Tyto furcata pratincola (Gill and Donsker 2019).
Abbreviations
- ABR:
-
Auditory brainstem response
- AWEA:
-
American Wind Energy Association
- ANOVA:
-
Analysis of variance
- CAP:
-
Compound action potential of the auditory nerve
- CN:
-
Cochlear nuclei
- dB SPL:
-
Decibels sound pressure level referenced to 20 µPa
- EtCO2 :
-
End-tidal CO2
- Hz:
-
Hertz (cycles/s)
- IPI:
-
Interpeak interval
- IUCN:
-
International Union for Conservation of Nature
- kHz:
-
KiloHertz
- nMLD:
-
Dorsolateral mesencephalic nucleus
- USDOE:
-
Unites States Department of Energy
- USFWS:
-
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
- USGAO:
-
United States Government Accountability Office
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the essential contributions from Drs. Michelle Willette and Dana Franzen-Klein, Lori Arent, Drew Bickford, Andrew Byrne, Jamie Clark, Christopher Feist, Christopher Milliren, and The Raptor Center volunteers. This material is based upon work supported by the US Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Wind Energy—Eagle Impact Minimization Technologies and Field Testing Opportunities, Award Number DE-EE0007881.
Funding
This study was funded by the US Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Wind Energy—Eagle Impact Minimization Technologies and Field Testing Opportunities, Award Number DE-EE0007881.
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McGee, J., Nelson, P.B., Ponder, J.B. et al. Auditory performance in bald eagles and red-tailed hawks: a comparative study of hearing in diurnal raptors. J Comp Physiol A 205, 793–811 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-019-01367-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-019-01367-9