Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Australopithecines: Ancestors of the African Apes?

  • Published:
Human Evolution

Abstract

Since australopithecines display humanlike traits such as short ilia, relatively small front teeth and thick molar enamel, they are usually assumed to be related toHomo rather than toPan orGorilla. However, this assumption is not supported by many other of their features.

This paper briefly surveys the literature concerning craniodental comparisons of australopith species with those of bonobos, common chimps, humans and gorillas, adult and immature. It will be argued, albeit on fragmentary data, that the large australopiths of East Africa were in many instances anatomically and therefore possibly also evolutionarily nearer toGorilla than toPan orHomo, and the South African australopiths nearer toPan andHomo than toGorilla. An example of a possible evolutionary tree is provided. It is suggested that the evidence concerning the relation of the different australopithecines with humans, chimpanzees and gorillas should be re-evaluated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiello L. & Dean C., 1990. An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy. Academic Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews P., 1992.Evolution and environment in the Hominoidea. Nature, 360: 641–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews P. & Cronin J.E., 1982.The relationships of Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus and the evolution of the orang-utan. Nature, 297: 541–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton E.H. & Zuckerman S., 1952.Age changes in the position of the occipital condyles in the chimpanzee and gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 10: 277–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begun D.R., 1992.Miocene fossil hominids and the chimp-human clade. Science, 257: 1929–1933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beynon A.D. & Wood B.A., 1986.Variations in enamel thickness and structure in East African hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 70: 177–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beynon A.D., Dean M.C. & Reid D.J., 1991.On thick and thin enamel in hominoids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 86: 295–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromage T.G., 1985.Taung facial remodeling: a growth and development study. In (P.V. Tobias, ed.) Hominid Evolution, pp. 239–245, Alan R. Liss, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bromage T.G. & Dean M.C., 1985.Re-evaluation of age at death of immature fossil hominids. Nature, 317: 525–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caccone A. & Powell J.R., 1989.DNA divergence among hominoids. Evolution, 43: 25–942.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calcagno J.M. & Gibson K.R., 1988.Human dental reduction: natural selection or the Probable Mutation Effect. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 77: 505–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cartmill M., 1982.Basic primatology and prosimian evolution, In (F. Spencer, ed.) A History of American Physical Anthropology 1930–1980, pp. 14–186. Academic, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cave A.J.E. & Wheeler Haines R., 1940.The paranasal sinuses of the anthropoid apes. Journal of Anatomy, 74, 43–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conroy G.C., 1990. Primate Evolution. W.W. Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coon S.C., 1954. The Story of Man. Knopff, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dart R.A., 1925.Autralopithecus africanus: the man-ape of South Africa. Nature, 115, 195–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C., 1903. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Watts and Co, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delson E., 1987.Evolution and palaeobiology of robust Australopithecus. Nature, 327: 654–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demes B. & Creel N., 1988.Bite force, diet and cranial morphology of fossil hominids. Journal of Human Evolution, 17: 657–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Waal F., 1988. Peacemaking among Primates. Harvard University Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth W.L.H., 1925.The fossil ape from Taungs. Nature, 115: 236–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckhardt R.B., 1987.Hominoid nasal region polymorphism and its phylogenetic significance. Nature, 328: 333–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edelstein S.J., 1987.An alternative paradigm for hominoid evolution. Human Evolution, 2: 169–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falk D., 1985.Hadar AL 162-28 endocast as evidence that brain enlargement preceded cortical reorganization in hominid evolution. Nature, 313: 45–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk D., 1987.Hominid paleoneurology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 16: 13–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falk D., Hildebolt C. & Vannier M.W., 1989.Reassessment of the Taung early hominid from a neurological perspective. Journal of Human Evolution, 18: 485–492.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson W.W., 1987a.Revision of the subspecies of Australopithecus africanus (Primates, Hominidae), including a new subspecies from the late Pliocene of Ethiopia. Primates, 28: 258–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson W.W., 1987b.Reconstruction and re-evaluation of the skull of Homo antiquus (Hominoidea. Homininae) from Hadar. Primates, 28: 377–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson W.W., 1989a.Reappraisal of the taxonomic status of the cranium Stw 53 from the Plio-Pleistocene of Sterkfontein, in South Africa. Primates, 30: 103–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson W.W., 1989b.A new species of the genus Australopithecus Primates-Hominidae from the Plio/Pleistocene deposits west of Lake Turkana in Kenya. Primates, 30: 223–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson W.W., 1992.“Australopithecus afarensis”: a composite species. Primates, 33: 273–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franciscus R.G. & Trinkaus E., 1988.Nasal morphology and the emergence of Homo erectus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 75: 517–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gebo D.L., 1992.Plantigrady and foot adaptation in African apes: implications for hominid origins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 89: 29–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs H.L. & Grant P.R., 1987.Oscillating selection on Darwin's finches. Nature, 327: 511–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez I.L., Sylvester J.E., Smith T.F., Stambolian D. & Schmickel R.D., 1990.Ribosomal RNA gene sequences and hominoid phylogeny. Molecular Biological Evolution, 7: 203–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman M., 1982.Biomolecular evidence on human origins from the standpoint of Darwinian theory. Human Biology, 54: 247–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gribbin J. & Cherfas J., 1983. The Monkey Puzzle. Triad, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grine F.E., 1987.The evolutionary history of the “robust” australopithecines. AnthroQuest, 38: 7–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves C.P. & Paterson J.D., 1989.Testing hominoid phylogeny with the PHYLIP programs. Journal of Human Evolution, 20: 167–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison R.J., 1958. Man the Peculiar Animal. Penguin, Harmondsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartman S.E., 1989.Stereophotogrammatic analysis of occlusal morphology of extant hominoid molars: phenetics and function. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 80: 145–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa M., Kishino H. & Yano T., 1985.Dating of the human-ape splitting by a molecular clock of mitochondrial DNA. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 2: 160–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa M., Kishino H. & Yano T., 1987.Man's Place in Hominoidea as inferred from molecular clocks. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 26: 13–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa M., Kishino H. & Yano T., 1988.Phylogenetic inference from DNA sequence data. In (K. Matsusita, ed.) Statistical Theory and Data Analysis II, pp. 1–13, North-Holland, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa M., Kishino H. & Yano T., 1989.Estimation of branching dates among primates by molecular clocks of nuclear DNA which slowed down in Hominoidea. Journal of Human Evolution, 18: 461–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howell F.C. & Wood B.A., 1974.Early hominid ulna from the Omo basin, Ethiopa. Nature, 249: 174–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt K. & Vitzthum V.J., 1986.Dental metric assessment of the Omo fossils: implications for the phylogenetic position of Australopithecus africanus, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 71: 141–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikoma E., 1986.Anthropological study of digital and parietal hair of Canadians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 69: 483–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inouye S.E., 1992.Ontogeny of knuckle-walking hand postures in African apes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Supplement 14: 55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins L., 1991.Synapomorphic features in Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes and Pliopleistocene hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Abstract 60th annual meeting, p. 100.

  • Johanson D.C. & Edey M.A., 1981. Lucy, the Beginnings of Mankind. Granada, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jungers W.L., 1982.Lucy's limbs: skeletal allometry and locomotion in Australopithecus afarensis. Nature, 297: 676–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keith A., 1925a.The fossil anthropoid ape from Taungs. Nature, 115: 234–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith A., 1925b.The Taungs skull. Nature, 116: 462–463.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith A., 1931. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. Williams and Norate, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy G.E., 1991.On the autapomorphic traits of Homo erectus. Journal of Human Evolution, 20: 375–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimbel W.H., White T.D. & Johanson D.C., 1984.Cranial morphology of Australopithecus afarensis: a comparative study based on a composite reconstruction of the adult skull. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 64: 337–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinzey W.G., 1970.Basic rectangle of the mandible. Nature, 228: 289–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleindienst M.R., 1975.On new perspectives on ape and human evolution. Current Anthropology. 16: 644–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korey K.A., 1990.Deconstructing reconstruction: the OH 62 humerofemoral index. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 83: 25–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kortlandt A., 1975.On new perspectives on ape and human evolution: reply. Current Anthropology, 16: 647–651.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laitman J.T. & Heimbuch R.C., 1982.The basicranium of Plio-Pleistocene hominids as an indicator of their upper respiratory systems. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 59: 323–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latimer B., Ohman J.C. & Lovejoy C.O., 1987.Talocrurual joint in African hominoids: implications for Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 74: 155–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey L.S.B., 1959.A new fossil skull from Olduvai. Nature, 184: 491–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey L.S.B., 1960.The affinities of the new Olduvai australopithecine. Nature, 186: 456–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leakey R.E., 1981. The Making of Mankind. Michael Joseph, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leakey R.E., 1981.Further evidence of Lower Pleistocene hominids from East Rudolf, North Kenya. Nature, 231: 242–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leakey R.E.F. & Walker A., 1988.New Australopithecus boisei specimens from East and West Lake Turkana, Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 76: 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Gros Clark W.E., 1978. The Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin R., 1987. Bones of Contention. Simon & Schuster, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin L., 1985.Significance of enamel thickness in hominoid evolution. Nature, 314: 260–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masters A.V., Falk D. & Gage T.B., 1991.Effects of age and gender on the location and orientation of the foramen magnum in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulata). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 86: 75–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHenry H.M., 1978.Fore-and hindlimb proportions in Plio-Pleistocene hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 49: 15–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHenry H.M., 1983.The capitate of Australopithecus afarensis and A. africanus. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 62: 187–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHenry H.M., 1991.Petite bodies of the “robust” australopithecines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 86: 445–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHenry H.M., 1992.Body size and proportions in early hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 87: 407–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nishida T., 1980.Local differences to water among wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 33: 189–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Northcutt R.G., 1990.Ontogeny and phylogeny: a re-evaluation of conceptual relationships and some applications. Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 36: 116–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oxnard C.E., 1984. The Order of Man. Yale University Press, New Haven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Partridge T. C., 1973.Geomorphological dating of openings at Makapansgat, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Taung. Nature 246: 75–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Partridge T.C., 1985.Spring flow and tufa accretion at Taung. In (P.J. Tobias, ed.) Hominid Evolution, pp. 171–187. Alan R. Liss, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilbeam D., 1982.New hominoid skull material from the Miocene of Pakistan. Nature, 295: 232–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rak Y. & Clarke R.J., 1979.Ear ossicle of Australopithecus robustus. Nature, 279: 62–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rak Y. & Howell F.C., 1978.Cranium of a juvenile Australopithecus boisei from the Lower Omo Basin, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 48, 345–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reader J., 1988. Missing Links. Penguin, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rensch B., 1972. Homo sapiens, from Man to Semigod. Columia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson J.T., 1960.The affinities of the new Olduvai specimen. Nature, 186: 456–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson J.T., 1972.The bearing of East Rudolf fossils on early hominid systematics. Nature, 240: 239–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruvolo M., Disotell T.R., Allard M.W., Brown W.M. & Honeycutt R.L., 1991.Resolution of the African hominoid trichotomy by use of a mitochondrial gene seguence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., 88: 1570–1574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan A.S. & Johanson D.C., 1989.Anterior dental microwear in Australopithecus afaresis: comparisons with human and nonhuman primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 18: 235–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarich V.M. & Wilson A.C., 1967.Immunological time scale for hominid evolution. Science, 158: 1200–1203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarich V.M., 1977.Rates, sample sizes, and the neutrality hypothesis for electrophoresis in evolutionary studies. Nature, 265: 24–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid P. & Stratil Z., 1986.Growth changes, variations and sexual dimorphism of the gorilla skull. In (J.B. Else & P.C. Lee, eds.) Primate Evolution, pp. 239–247. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenemann P.T., 1989.Comparison of intraspecific craniometric variability in Homo, Pan and Gorilla. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 78: 298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A.H., 1936.Characters common to higher primates and characters specific for man. Quarternary Review of Biology, 11: 259–283 and 425–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A.H., 1941.Ontogenetic specializations of man. Archiv Julius Klaus-Stiftung, XXIV: 197–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A.H., 1941.Growth and development of the orang-utan. Contributions to Embryology, XXIX: 57–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A.H., 1950.The physical distinctions of man. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 94: 428–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A.H., 1955.The position of the occipital condyles and of the face relative to the skull base in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 13: 97–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seger J., 1987.El Niño and Darwin's finches. Nature, 327: 461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Senut B., 1980.New data on the humerus and its joints in Plio-Pleistocene hominids. Collegium Anthropologicum, 4: 87–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon P., 1988.Making most of the evolution diary. New Scientist, 1596: 52–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silson R.G., 1988. Additive Gene Systems. Greenfield Publications, Tring.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sibley C.G., Comstock J.A. & Ahlquist C.G., 1990.DNA hydridization evidence of hominoid phylogeny: a reanalysis of data. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 30: 202–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons E.L., 1989.Human origins. Science, 245, 1343–1350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh J.D., 1982.Distribution of hair on phalanges of the hand in Nigerians. Acta Anatomica, 112: 31–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith G.E., 1925.The fossil anthropoid ape from Taungs. Nature, 115: 235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern J.T. & Susman R.L., 1983.The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 60: 279–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobias P.V., 1968.Pleistocene deposits and new fossil localities in Kenya. Nature, 217: 479–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treviño S., 1991. Graincollection, Humans' Natural Ecological Niche, Vantage Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trinkaus E., 1990.Cladistics and the hominid fossil record. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 83: 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verhaegen M.J.B., 1990.African ape ancestry. Human Evolution, 5: 295–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhaegen M.J.B., 1992.Did robust australopithecines partly feed on hard parts of Gramineae? Human Evolution, 7: 63–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vigilant L., Stoneking M., Harpending H., Hawkes K. & Wilson A.C., 1991.African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA, Science, 53: 1503–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker A., Leakey R.E., Harris J.M. & Brown F.H., 1986.2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from West of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature, 322: 517–552.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White T.D. & Harris J.M., 1977.Suid evolution and correlation of African hominid localities. Science, 198: 13–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A., 1978.Classification and phylogeny of East African hominids. In (P.V. Tobias, ed.) Hominid Evolution, pp. 351–372, Alan R. Liss, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A., 1992a.Old bones match old stones. Nature, 355: 678–679.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A., 1992b.Origin and evolution of the genus Homo. Nature, 355: 783–790.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A., Abbott S.A. & Uytterschaut H., 1988.Analysis of the dental morphology of Plio-Pleistocene hominids: IV. Mandibular postcanine root morphology. Journal of Anatomy, 156: 107–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A. & Chamberlain A.T., 1987.The nature, and affinities of the “robust” australopithecines: a review. Journal of Human Evolution, 16: 625–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wood B.A. & Engleman C.A., 1988.Analysis of the dental morphology of Plio-Pleistocene hominids: V. Maxillary postcanine tooth morphology. Journal of Anatomy, 161: 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, B.A. & Uytterschaut H., 1987.Analysis of the dental morphology of Plio-Pleistocene hominids: III. Mandibular premolar crowns. Journal of Anatomy, 154: 121–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward A.S., 1925.The fossil anthropoid ape from Taungs. Nature, 115: 235–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zihlman A.L., Cronin J.E., Cramer D.L. & Sarich V.M., 1978.Pygmy chimpanzee as a possible prototype for the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees and gorillas. Nature, 275: 744–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zihlman A.L., 1985.Australopithecus afarensis: two sexes or two species? In (P.V. Tobias, ed.) Hominid Evolution, pp. 213–220, Alan R. Liss, New York.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mechelbaan 338, 2580, Putte, Belgium

    M. J. B. Verhaegen

Authors
  1. M. J. B. Verhaegen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Verhaegen, M.J.B. Australopithecines: Ancestors of the African Apes?. Hum. Evol. 9, 121–139 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02437259

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02437259

Key words

Search

Navigation