Abstract
Data material of a long-term high mountain ecosystem research project was used to interpret the grazing impact of reindeers. In central Norway investigations were conducted to both, areas where reindeer grazing is excluded, and areas where intensive pasturing is present for a long period of time. The comparative analysis of grazing impact was based on similar environmental conditions. The results were transposed to northern Norway where dramtic overgrazing had been exceeding the carrying capacity. Using landscape ecological mappings, especially of vegetation and soils, the impact of reindeer grazing in different areas became obvious. Non-grazed lichen-dominated ecosystems of the snow-free locations functioned sensitively near the limit of organism survival. These localities were most influenced by grazing as they offer the winter forage to the reindeers. So, intensive grazing in central Norway led to landscape degradation by destruction of the vegetation and superinduced by soil erosion. Those features were comparable to the situation in northern Norway, where a broad-scale destruction of the environment combined with a depression of the altitudinal belts had occurred due to overgrazing. Functioning principles of intact high mountain systems were explained and used to interpret the environmental background for the understanding of degradation phenomena. Finally, the use of a new model calculating the carrying capacity of high mountain landscape was discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
A. G Boden. 1982 –1996. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. 3rd and 4th edition.Stuttgart: Schweizerbart.
Bernes C. 1993. The nordic environment — present state, trends and threats, Nord 12. Copenhagen: Nordic Council of Ministers.
Billings W. D and Bliss LC. 1959. An alpine snowbank environment and its effects on vegetation, plant development, and productivity. Ecology40: 388–397.
Billings W. D. 1973. Arctic and alpine vegetations: similarities, differences, and susceptibility to disturbance. Bio. Science23: 697–704.
Bøcher J and Petersen PM. 1998. Greenland. In: Wielgolaski FE, editor. Polar and alpine tundra. Ecosystems of the World 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier, Pp 685–720.
Bøcher T. W. 1938. Biological distribution types in the flora of Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland 106.
Braun-Blanquet J. 1964. Pflanzensoziologie. Wien: Springer.
Burkhart B and Müller F. 2002. Development of a General Indicator Concept for Reindeer Management. Http://www.rangifer.no/ eng/abstracts-2002-p.html, 09.10.2003.
Chernov Y. I and Matveyeva NV. 1998. Arctic ecosystems in Russia. In: Wielgolaski FE, editor. Polar and alpine tundra. Ecosystems of the World 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Pp 361–507.
Dahl E. 1956. Rondane. Mountain vegetation in south Norway and its relation to the environment. Skr. utg. av Det Norske Vid. Akad. i Oslo. Mat.-Nat. Kl. 3. Oslo: Aschehoug.
Dahl E. 1975. Flora and plant sociology in Fennoscandian tundra areas. In: Wielgolaski E, editor. Fennoscandian tundra ecosystems. Part 1. Plants and microorganisms. Ecological Studies 16. Berlin: Springer, pp. 63–67.
Dahl E. 1986. Zonation in arctic and alpine tundra and fellfield ecobiomes. In: Polunin N, editor. Ecosystem theory and application. Wiley, Chichester, pp 35–62.
Dahl E. 1998. The phytogeography of northern Europe (British Isles, Fennoscandia and adjacent areas). Cambridge: University Press.
Eastman J. R. 1999. Guide to GIS and image processing. Idrisi 32. Vol. 1. Clark Labs. Worchester.
Fægri K. 1972. Geo-ökologische Probleme der Gebirge Skandinaviens. In: Troll C, editor, Geoecology of the high-mountain regions of Eurasia: Proceedings of the symposium of the International Geographical Union, commission on high-altitude geoecology, November 20–22, 1969 at Mainz in connection with the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur in Mainz, Kommission für Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung. Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung 4. Wiesbaden: Steiner. Pp 98–106.
Fremstad E. 1997. Vegetationstyper i Norge. Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Temahefte 12, Trondheim.
Fries T. C. E. 1913. Botanische Untersuchungen im nördlichsten Schweden. Ventesk. och prakt. unders. j Lappl. Flora och Fauna 2. Uppsala.
Gjærevoll O. 1956. The plant communities of the Scandinavian alpine snowbeds. Det Kong. Norske Vid. Selsk. Skr. 1. Trondheim.
Hemmer I. 1985. Entwicklung und Struktur der Rentierwirtschaft in Finnmark und Troms (Nord-norwegen). Bamberger Wirtschaftsgeographische Arbeiten 1. Bamberg: Selbstverlag.
Hill M. O and Gauch HG. 1980. Detrended correspondence analysis: an improved ordination technique. Vegetatio42: 47–58.
Isard S. A and Belding MJ. 1989. Evapotranspiration from the alpine tundra of Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research21: 71–82.
Johansen B and Tømmervik H. 1993. Finnmarksvidda vegetationskartlegging — vegetationstyper, lavbeiter og endringer i lavdekket innen reinbeitedistrikt 30 og 31, Finnmarksvidda. Norut Informasjon-steknologi as. Tromsø.
Jones H. G, Pomeroy J. W, Walker D. A and Hoham R. W. 2001. Snow ecology. An interdisciplinary examination of snow-covered ecosystems. Cambridge: University Press.
Jongman R. H. G, Ter Braak C. J. F and Van Tongeren O. F. R, editors. 1995. Data analysis in community and landscape ecology. Cambridge.
Karlsen S. R, Johansen B and Høgda K. A. 1996. Vegetasjonskartlegging og beitevurdering av reinbei-tedistrikt 14A Spiertagaissa og Porsangmoen / Halkavarre skyte og øvingsfelt. Norut Informasjon-steknologi as. Tromsø.
Karlsen S. R, Tømmervik H, Solheim I, Johansen B, Høgda K, A and Engelsen O. 1998. Satellite based phenology study in eastern part of Finnmark, northern Norway, Norut Informasjonsteknologi as. Tromsø.
Kashulina G, Reimann C, Finne T. E, Halleraker J. H, Äräs M and Chekushin VA. 1997. The state of the ecosystem in the central Barents region: scale, factors and mecha-nisms of disturbance. Sci Tot Env206: 203–225.
King L. 1984. Permafrost in Skandinavien. Ergebnisse aus Lappland, Jotunheimen und Dovre/Rondane. Heidelberger Geographische Arbeiten 76.
Knox R. 1989. Effects of detrending and rescaling on correspondence analysis: solution stability and accuracy. Vegetatio83: 129–136.
Köhler B, Löffler J, Wundram D. 1994. Problems of local geoecovariance in the central Norwegian mountains. Norwegian Journal of Geography48: 99–111.
Konstantinov Y and Vladimirova V. 2002. Ambigious transition: agrarian reforms, management, and coping practices in Murmansk region reindeer herding. MPI Working Paper35: 1–29. Max-Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Halle/Saale.
Körner C. 1999. Alpine plant life. Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. Berlin: Springer.
Löffler J. 1998. Geoökologische Untersuchungen zur Struktur mittelnorwegischer Hochgebirgs-ökosysteme. Oldenburger Geoökologische Studien 1. Oldenburg: Bibliotheks-und Informations-system.
Löffler J. 1999. Neuere Ergebnisse geoökologischer Kartierungen in Nord-Norwegen. Norden13: 243–265. Bremen.
Löffler J. 2000. High mountain ecosystems and landscape degradation in northern Norway. Mountain Research and Development20: 356–363.
Löffler J. 2002. Altitudinal changes of ecosystem dynamics in the central norwegian high mountains. Die Erde133: 155–186.
Löffler J. 2003. Micro-climatic determination of vegetation patterns along topographical, altitudinal, and oceanic-continental gradients in the high mountains of Norway. Erdkunde57: 232–249.
May D. E. 1976. The response of alpine tundra vegetation in Colorado to environmental modification. PhD thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Meier K. D. 1996: Studien zur Periglaziärmorphologie der Varanger-Halbinsel, Nordnorwegen (mit einem Vergleich Finnmark — Nordenskiöldland, Zentrales Westspitzbergen). Norden 11. Bremen.
Messerli B, Ives J. D. editors. 1997. Mountains of the World. A global priority. New York: Pauthenon.
Moen A. 1999. National atlas of Norway. Vegetation. Hønefoss: Norwegian mapping authority.
Moen J and Danell Ö. 2003: Reindeer in the Swedish Mountain. An assessment of grazing impacts. Ambio33: 397–402.
Molenaar G.J. d. 1987. An ecohydrological approach to floral and vegetational patterns in arctic landscape ecology. Arctic and Alpine Research19: 414–424.
Mosimann T. 1984a. Landschaftsökologische Komplexanalyse. Steiner, Wiesbaden.
Mosimann T. 1984b. Methodische Grundprinzipien für die Untersuchung von Geoökosystemen in der topologischen Dimension. Geomethodica 9, Basel. Pp 31–65.
Munsell. 1992. Soil Color Charts. Baltimore: Munsell.
Norut. 1999. Endringer i vegetasjonsdekket på Finnmarksvidda http://www.itek.norut.no/vegetasjon/10fi/10fi.htm. Norut Informasjonsteknologi as. Tromsø.
Økland R. H. 1990. Vegetation ecology: theory, methods and applications with reference to Fennoscandia. Sommerfeltia Suppl1: 1–233.
Økland R. H. 1999. On the variation explained by ordination and constrained ordination axes. J Vegetation Sci10: 131–136.
Oksanen J and Moen J. 1994. Species-specific plant response to exclusion of grazers in three Fennoscandian tundra habitats. Ecoscience1: 31–39.
Olofsson J, Kitti H, Rautiainen P, Stark S and Oksanen L. 2001. Effects of summer grazing by reindeer on composition of vegetation, productivity and nitrogen cycling. Ecography24: 13–24.
Påhlsson L. 1994: Vegetationstyper i Norden. TemaNord 1994: 665. Nordiska ministerrådet, Copenhagen.
Reimers E, Villmo L, Gaare E, Holthe V and Skogland T. 1980. Status of Rangifer in Norway including Svalbard. In: Reimers E, Gaare E, Skjenneberg S, editors. Proc. 2nd Int. Reindeer/Caribou Symp., Røros, Norway, 1979. Direktoratet for vilt og ferskvannsfisk, Trondheim. Pp 774–785.
Reindriftsforvaltningen. 2003. Ressursregnskap for reindriftsnæringen. For Reindriftsåret 1. April 2001 – 31. Mars 2002. Alta.
Reynolds J. F and Tenhunen J. D, editors. 1996. Landscape function and disturbance in arctic tundra. Ecological Studies 120. Berlin: Springer.
Rydgren K. 1994. Low-alpine vegetation in Gutulia National Park, Egerdal, Hedmark, Norway, and its relation to the environment. Sommerfeltia21: 3–47.
Severinsen A. 1987. De sørligste sørsamer. Fjell Vidde5: 45–55.
Sigmond E, Gustavson M and Roberts D. 1984. Berggrunnskart over Norge - M. 1: 1.000.000. Norges geologiske undersøkelse. Trondheim.
Stäblein G. 1979. Böden und Relief in Westgrönland. Z. Geomorph. N. F. Suppl.-Bd.33: 232–245.
Steinhardt U. 2002. Landscape ecological complex analysis. In: Bastian O and Steinhardt U. editors. Development and perspectives of landscape ecology. Kluwer, Dordrecht. Pp 160–168.
Tedrow J. C. F and Cantlon JE. 1958. Concepts of soil formation and classification in arctic regions. Arctic11: 166–179.
Ter Braak C. J. F and Prentice I. C. 1988. A theory of gradient analysis. Adv Ecol Res 18: 271–317. Tømmervik H, Johansen B. 1992. Miljøundersøkelser i Elgå reinbeitedistrikt. Vegetajonskart med beitevurderinger. ForskStift. Univ. Tromsø Avd. InformTechnol. Rapp.2014: 1–97.
Ter Braak C. J. F. 1986. Canonical correspondence analysis: a new eigenvector technique for multivariate direct gradient analysis. Ecology67: 1167–1179.
Ter Braak C. J. F. 1994. Canonical community ordination. Part I: basic theory and linear methods. Ecoscience1: 127–140.
Thannheiser D and Treude E. 1981. Masi (Nordnorwegen). Jüngere Strukturwandlungen in einem lappischen Dorf. In: Butzin B, editor. Entwicklungs- und Planungsprobleme in Nordeuropa. Münstersche Geographische Arbeiten 12. Paderborn.
Thannheiser D. 1975. Vegetationsgeographische Untersuchungen auf der Finnmarksvidda im Gebiet von Masi/Norwegen. Westfälische Geographische Studien 31. Münster.
Thannheiser D. 1977. Subarctic birch forest in Norwegian Lappland. Le Naturaliste Canadien104: 151–156.
Tømmervik H and Johansen B. 1992. Miljøundersøkelser i Elgå reinbeitedistrikt. Vegetajonskart med beite-vurderinger. ForskStift. Univ. Tromsø Avd Inform Technol Rapp 2014.
Virtanen R, Dirnböck T, Dullinger S, Grabherr G, Pauli H, Staudinger M and Villar L. 2003. Patterns in plant species richness of European high mountain vegetation. In: Nagy L, Grabherr G, Körner C and Thompson DBA. Alpine diversity in Europe. Berlin: Springer. Pp 149–72.
Virtanen R. 2000. Effects of grazing on above ground biomass on a mountain snow bed, NW Finland. Oikos90: 295–300.
Waide R. B, Willig M. R, Steiner C. F, Mittelbach G, Gough L, Dodson S. I, Juday G. P and Parmenter R. 1999. The relationship between productivity and species richness. Annu Rev Ecol Syst30: 257–300.
Wielgolaski FE, editor. 1998. Polar and alpine tundra. Ecosystems of the World 3. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Wundram D. 2003. Die Bedeutung des Temperaturhaushalts für die Prozessdynamik mittelnorwegischer Hochgebirgsökosysteme. Dissertation, Bibliotheks- und Informationssystem. Universität Oldenburg.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Löffler, J. Degradation of high mountain ecosystems in northern Europe. J. Mt. Sci. 1, 97–114 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02919333
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02919333