Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the effects of alternative washing procedures on fresh-cut iceberg lettuce and endive, applying warm water (45 °C), warm water with CaCl2 (1 g/L), and chlorinated water (4 °C, 120 ppm), respectively. Processing was conducted on pre-industrial scale, and the produce was subsequently stored in consumer-sized bags (4 °C, 10 days). O2 and CO2 levels in the modified atmosphere, and activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), peroxidase (POD) and polyphenoloxidase (PPO) of the samples were analyzed. Counts of total aerobic bacteria and pseudomonades were determined on the produce and in the process water. In both commodities, wound-induced PAL activities were significantly reduced by warm water treatment. In iceberg lettuce, adding CaCl2 to warm water resulted in a further reduction of PAL activities. Chlorinated water was less effective than warm water in suppressing wound-induced PAL activity in endive, but proved to be most effective in reducing total microbial cell counts by 1.1 and 2.1 log10 cfu/g in iceberg lettuce and endive, respectively. Warm water treatment exhibited reduction rates of similar magnitudes. For process water, chlorine proved to be the most efficient sanitizer. PPO and POD activities were only marginally affected by the different washing procedures. As indicated by respiration of the fresh-cut produce, warm water treatments applied retained the vitality of both plant species. The results suggest that warm water treatments are suitable measures to improve the quality of iceberg lettuce and endive, but were less efficient in sanitizing the process water.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
WHO (2003) Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. WHO Tech Rep Ser 916:1–149
Varoquaux P, Mazollier J (2002) In: Lamikanra O (ed) Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. Science, technology and market. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Saltveit ME (1997) In: Thomás-Barberán FA (ed) Phytochemistry of fruit and vegetables. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Rico D, Martín-Diana AB, Barat JM, Barry-Ryan C (2007) Extending and measuring the quality of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables: a review. Trends Food Sci Technol 18:373–386
Saltveit ME (2000) Wound induced changes in phenolic metabolism and tissue browning are altered by heat shock. Postharvest Biol Technol 21:61–69
Toivonen PMA, DeEll JR (2002) In: Lamikanra O (ed) Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables—science, technology and market. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Baur S, Klaiber RG, Koblo A, Carle R (2004) Effect of different washing procedures on phenolic metabolism of shredded, packaged iceberg lettuce during storage. J Agric Food Chem 52:7017–7025
Hisaminato H, Murata H, Homma S (2001) Relationship between the enzymatic browning and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity of cut lettuce, and the prevention of browning by inhibitors of polyphenol biosynthesis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 65:1016–1021
Thomás-Barberán FA, Loaiza-Velarde J, Bonfanti A, Saltveit ME (1997) Early wound- and ethylene-induced changes in phenylpropanoid metabolism in harvested lettuce. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 122:399–404
Baur S, Klaiber R, Hammes WP, Carle R (2004) Sensory and microbiological quality of shredded, packaged iceberg lettuce as affected by pre-washing procedures with chlorinated and ozonated water. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 5:45–55
King AD, Magnuson JA, Török T, Goodman N (1991) Microbial flora and storage quality of partially processed lettuce. J Food Sci 56:459–461
Lynch MF, Tauxe RV, Hedberg CW (2009) The growing burden of foodborne outbreaks due to contaminated fresh produce: risks and opportunities. Epidemiol Infect 137:307–315
Francis GA, Thomas C, O`Beirne D (1999) The microbiological safety of minimally processed vegetables. Int J Food Sci Technol 34:1–22
Zagory D (1999) Effects of post-processing handling and packaging on microbial populations. Postharvest Biol Technol 15:313–321
Baur S, Klaiber R, Wei H, Hammes WP, Carle R (2005) Effect of temperature and chlorination of pre-washing water on shelf-life and physiological properties of ready-to-use iceberg lettuce. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 6:171–182
Martín-Diana AB, Rico D, Barry-Ryan C, Mulcahy J, Frias J, Henehan GTM (2005) Effect of heat shock on browning-related enzymes in minimally processed iceberg lettuce and crude extracts. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 69:1677–1685
Thomás-Barberán FA, Gil MI, Castaner M, Artés F, Saltveit ME (1997) Effect of selected browning inhibitors on phenolic metabolism in stem tissue of harvested lettuce. J Agric Food Chem 45:583–589
Carle R, Borzych P, Dubb P, Siliha H, Maier O (2001) A new process for firmer canned cherries and strawberries. Food Aust 53:343–348
Barrera MJ, Blenkinsop R, Warriner K (2012) The effect of different processing parameters on the efficacy of commercial post-harvest washing of minimally processed spinach and shredded lettuce. Food Control 25:745–751
Degl’Innocenti E, Pardossi A, Tognoni F, Guidi L (2007) Physiological basis of sensitivity to enzymatic browning in ‘lettuce’, ‘escarole’ and ‘rocket salad’ when stored as fresh-cut products. Food Chem 104:209–215
Roura SI, Pereyra L, del Valle CE (2008) Phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity in fresh cut lettuce subjected to the combined action of heat mild shocks and chemical additives. LWT Food Sci Technol 41:919–924
Fukumoto LR, Toivonen PMA, Delaquis PJ (2002) Effect of wash water temperature and chlorination on phenolic metabolism and browning of stored iceberg lettuce photosynthetic and vascular tissues. J Agric Food Chem 50:4503–4511
Mayer-Miebach E, Gärtner U, Großmann B, Wolf W, Spieß WEL (2003) Influence of low temperature blanching on the content of valuable substances and sensory properties in ready-to-use salads. J Food Eng 56:215–217
Zhang G, Ma L, Beuchat LR, Erickson MC, Phelan VH, Doyle MP (2009) Evaluation of treatments for elimination of foodborne pathogens on the surface of leaves and roots of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). J Food Prot 72:228–234
Klaiber RG, Baur S, Koblo A, Carle R (2005) Influence of washing treatment and storage atmosphere on phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity and phenolic acid content of minimally processed carrot sticks. J Agric Food Chem 53:1065–1072
Schweiggert U, Schieber A, Carle R (2005) Inactivation of peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, and lipoxygenase in paprika and chili powder after immediate thermal treatment of the plant material. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 6:403–411
López-Gálvez G, Saltveit M, Cantwell M (1996) The visual quality of minimally processed lettuces stored in air or controlled atmosphere with emphasis on romaine and iceberg types. Postharvest Biol Technol 8:179–190
López-Gálvez G, Saltveit M, Cantwell M (1996) Wound-induced phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity: factors affecting its induction and correlation with the quality of minimally processed lettuces. Postharvest Biol Technol 9:223–233
Heimdal H, Kühn BF, Poll L, Larsen LM (1995) Biochemical changes and sensory quality of shredded and MA-packaged iceberg lettuce. J Food Sci 60(1265–1268):1276
Barriga MI, Trachy G, Willemot C, Simard RE (1991) Microbial changes in shredded iceberg lettuce stored under controlled atmospheres. J Food Sci 56:1586–1588
Saltveit MA (2001) A summary of CA requirements and recommendations for vegetables. Postharvest Hortic Ser 22A:71–94
Gorny JR (2001) A summary of CA and MA requirements and recommendations for fresh-cut (minimally processed) fruits and vegetables. Postharvest Hortic Ser 22A:95–145
Werner BG, Hotchkiss JH (2006) In: Sapers GM, Gorny JR, Yousef AE (eds) Microbiology of fruits and vegetables. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton
Beaudry R (2007) In: Wilson CL (ed) Intelligent and active packaging for fruits and vegetables. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton
Loaiza-Velarde JG, Tomás-Barberán FA, Saltveit ME (1997) Effect of intensity and duration of heat-shock treatments on wound-induced phenolic metabolism in iceberg lettuce. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 122:873–877
Loaiza-Velarde JG, Saltveit ME (2001) Heat shocks applied either before or after wounding reduce browning of lettuce leaf tissue. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 126:227–234
Ritenour MA, Saltveit ME (1996) Identification of a phenylalanine ammonia-lyase inactivation factor in harvested head lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Physiol Plant 97:327–331
Ke D, Saltveit ME (1989) Wound-induced ethylene production, phenolic metabolism and susceptibility to russet spotting in iceberg lettuce. Plant Physiol 76:412–418
Jones DH (1984) Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase: regulation of its induction, and its role in plant development. Phytochem 23:1349–1359
Ritenour MA, Ahrens MJ, Saltveit ME (1995) Effects of temperature on ethylene-induced phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity and russet spotting in harvested iceberg lettuce. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 120:84–87
Chon S-U, Boo H-O, Heo B-G, Gorinstein S (2012) Anthocyanin content and the activities of polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase in lettuce cultivars. Int J Food Sci Nutr 63:45–48
Campos-Vargas R, Nonogaki H, Suslow T, Saltveit ME (2005) Heat shock treatments delay the increase in wound-induced phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity by altering its expression, not its induction in romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa) tissue. Physiol Plant 123:82–91
Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA (2001) Effect of wounding on phenolic enzymes in six minimally processed lettuce cultivars upon storage. J Agric Food Chem 49:322–330
Martín-Diana AB, Rico D, Barry-Ryan C, Frías JM, Mulcahy J, Henehan TM (2005) Calcium lactate washing treatments for salad-cut iceberg lettuce: effect of temperature and concentration on quality retention parameters. Food Res Int 38:729–740
Martín-Diana AB, Rico D, Barry-Ryan C, Frías JM, Mulcahy J, Henehan TM (2005) Comparison of calcium lactate with chlorine as a washing treatment for fresh-cut lettuce and carrots: quality and nutritional parameters. J Sci Food Agric 85:2260–2268
Ke D, Saltveit ME (1989) Regulation of russet spotting, phenolic metabolism, and IAA oxidase by low oxygen in iceberg lettuce. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 114:638–642
Altunkaya A, Gökmen V (2012) Effect of grape seed extract on phenolic profile and browning of fresh-cut lettuce (L. sativa). J Food Biochem 36:268–274
Altunkaya A, Gökmen V (2008) Effect of various inhibitors on enzymatic browning, antioxidant activity and total phenol content of fresh lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Food Chem 107:1173–1179
Allende A, Selma MV, López-Gálvez F, Villaescusa R, Gil MI (2008) Role of commercial sanitizers and washing systems on epiphytic microorganisms and sensory quality of fresh-cut escarole and lettuce. Postharvest Biol Technol 49:155–163
Price KR, DuPont MS, Shepherd R, Chan HW-S, Fenwick GR (1990) Relationship between the chemical and sensory properties of exotic salad crops—coloured lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and chicory (Cichorium intybus). J Sci Food Agric 53:185–192
Rodriguez E, Towers GHN, Mitchell JC (1976) Biological activities of sesquiterpene lactones. Phytochem 15:1573–1580
Breidt FJ (2006) In: Sapers GM, Gorny JR, Yousef AE (eds) Microbiology of fruits and vegetables. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton
Li Y, Brackett RE, Shewfelt RL, Beuchat LR (2001) Changes in appearance and natural microflora on iceberg lettuce treated in warm, chlorinated water and then stored at refrigeration temperature. Food Microbiol 18:299–308
Höfte M, De Vos P (2006) In: Gnanamanickam SS (ed) Plant-associated bacteria. Springer, Dordrecht
Barth M, Hankinson TR, Zhuang H, Breidt F (2009) In: Sperber WH, Doyle MP (eds) Compendium of the microbiological spoilage of foods and beverages, food microbiology and food safety. Springer, New York
Veröffentlichte mikrobiologische Richt- und Warnwerte zur Beurteilung von Lebensmitteln (2011) DGHM—Deutsche Gesellschaft für Hygiene und Mikrobiologie. http://www.dghm.org/m_275. Accessed 27 Aug 2012
Wei H, Brandt MJ, Wolf G, Hammes WP (2005) Optimization of acidified warm water treatment to improve the microbiological status and sensory quality of iceberg lettuce. Eur Food Res Technol 220:168–175
Morris CE, Monier J-M (2003) The ecological significance of biofilm formation by plant-associated bacteria. Annu Rev Phytopathol 41:429–453
Jefferson KK (2004) What drives bacteria to produce a biofilm? FEMS Microbiol Lett 236:163–173
Gil MI, Selma MV, López-Gálvez F, Allende A (2009) Fresh-cut product sanitation and wash water disinfection: problems and solutions. Int J Food Microbiol 134:37–45
Luo Y (2007) Fresh-cut produce wash water reuse affects water quality and packaged product quality and microbial growth in romaine lettuce. Hort Sci 42:1413–1419
Chaidez C, Castro-del Campo N, Heredia JB, Contreras-Angulo L, González-Aguilar G, Ayala-Zavala JF (2012) In: Gómez-López VM (ed) Decontamination of fresh and minimally processed produce. Blackwell, Ames
Selma M, Allende A, López-Gálvez F, Conesa MA, Gil MI (2008) Disinfection potential of ozone, ultraviolet-C and their combination in wash water for the fresh-cut vegetable industry. Food Microbiol 25:809–814
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Kronen GmbH (Kehl, Germany) for the allocation of industrial equipment, Sapros GmbH (Ilsfeld, Germany) for the generous supply with plant material, and Amcor flexibles Europe (Bristol, UK) for kindly providing the film bags. We are also grateful to Klaus Mix for his excellent technical assistance and Martina Rebmann for her valuable laboratory assistance.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wulfkuehler, S., Kurfiss, L., Kammerer, D.R. et al. Impact of different washing procedures on quality of fresh-cut iceberg lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. capitata L.) and endive (Cichorium endivia L.). Eur Food Res Technol 236, 229–241 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-012-1878-5
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-012-1878-5