Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Accuracies of facial soft tissue depth means for estimating ground truth skin surfaces in forensic craniofacial identification

  • Original Article
  • Published:
International Journal of Legal Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

An Erratum to this article was published on 18 December 2014

Abstract

Facial soft tissue thickness means have long been used as a proxy to estimate the soft tissue envelope, over the skull, in craniofacial identification. However, estimation errors of these statistics are not well understood, making casework selection of the best performing estimation models impossible and overarching method accuracies controversial. To redress this situation, residuals between predicted and ground truth values were calculated in two experiments: (1) for 27 suites of means drawn from 10 recently published studies, all examining the same 10 landmarks (N ≥ 3051), and tested against six independent raw datasets of contemporary living adults (N = 797); and (2) pairwise tests of the above six, and five other, raw datasets (N = 1063). In total, 380 out-of-sample tests of 416 arithmetic means were conducted across 11 independent samples. Experiment 1 produced an overarching mean absolute percentage error (MAE) of 29 % and a standard error of the estimate (S est) of 2.7 mm. Experiment 2 yielded MAE of 32 % and S est of 2.8 mm. In any instance, MAE was always ≥20 % of the ground truth value. The overarching 95 % limits of the error, for contemporary samples, was large (11.4 mm). CT-derived means from South Korean males and Black South African females routinely performed well across the test samples and produced the smallest errors of any tests (but did so for Black American male reference samples). Sample-specific statistics thereby performed poorly despite discipline esteem. These results—and the practice of publishing means without prior model validation—demand major reforms in the field.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Stephan CN, Simpson EK (2008) Facial soft tissue depths in craniofacial identification (part I): an analytical review of the published adult data. J Forensic Sci 53(6):1257–1272

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Stephan C (2014) Facial approximation and craniofacial superimposition. In: Smith C (ed) Encyclopedia of global archaeology. Springer Science + Business Media, New York, pp 2721–2729

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  3. Yoshino M (2012) Craniofacial superimposition. In: Wilkinson CM, Rynn C (eds) Craniofacial identification. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 238–253

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  4. Ubelaker DH (2014) Craniofacial superimposition: history and current issues. Paper presented at the MEPROCS International Conference on Craniofacial Superimposition, Dundee, Scotland

  5. Helmer RP (1987) Identification of the cadaver remains of Josef Mengele. J Forensic Sci 32(6):1622–1644

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Haglund WD, Reay DT (1991) Use of facial approximation techniques in identification of Green River serial murder victims. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 12(2):132–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Taylor KT (2001) Forensic art and illustration. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  8. Brown KA (1993) The Truro murders in retrospect: a historical review of the identification of the victims. Ann Acad Med Singap 22(1):103–106

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Wilkinson C, Rynn C (2012) Craniofacial identification. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  10. Wilkinson C (2004) Forensic facial reconstruction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. Reardon S (2014) Faulty forensic science under fire: US panels aim to set standards for crime labs. Nature 506:13–14

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. National Academy of Sciences (2009) Strengthening forensic science in the United States: a path forward. Washington D.C.

  13. Stephan C (2014) The application of the central limit theorem and the law of large numbers to facial soft tissue depths: T-table robustness and trends since 2008. J Forensic Sci 59(5):454–462

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Stephan CN, Simpson EK, Byrd JE (2013) Facial soft tissue depth statistics and enhanced point estimators for craniofacial identification: the debut of the shorth and the 75-shormax. J Forensic Sci 58(6):1439–1457

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. De Greef S, Claes P, Vandermeulen D, Mollemans W, Suetens P, Willems G (2006) Large-scale in-vivo Caucasian soft tissue thickness database for craniofacial reconstruction. Forensic Sci Int 159S:S126–S146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Dong Y, Huang L, Feng Z, Bai S, Wu G, Zhao Y (2012) Influence of sex and body mass index on facial soft tissue thickness measurements of the northern Chinese adult population. Forensic Sci Int 222(1–3):396.e1–7

  17. Chan WN, Listi GA, Manhein MH (2011) In vivo facial tissue depth study of Chinese-American adults in New York City. J Forensic Sci 56(2):350–358

  18. Hwang H-S, Park M-K, Lee W-J, Cho J-H, Kim B-K, Wilkinson CM (2012) Facial soft tissue thickness database for craniofacial reconstruction in Korean adults. J Forensic Sci 57(6):1442–1447

  19. Kirk RE (1996) Practical significance: a concept whose time has come. Educ Psychol Meas 56(5):746–759

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Abelson RP (1995) Statistics as principled argument. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  21. Harlow LL, Mulaik SA, Steiger JH (eds) (1997) What if there were no significance tests? Psychology Press - Taylor & Francis Group, New York

    Google Scholar 

  22. Cohen J (1990) Things I have learned (so far). Am Psychol 45(12):1304–1312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. James G, Witten D, Hastie T, Tibshirani R (2013) An introduction to statistical learning. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  24. Brues AM (1958) Identification of skeletal remains. J Crim Law Crim Police Sci 48:551–556

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Tyrrell AJ, Evison MP, Chamberlain AT, Green MA (1997) Forensic three-dimensional facial reconstruction: historical review and contemporary developments. J Forensic Sci 42(4):653–661

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Stephan CN, Henneberg M (2001) Building faces from dry skulls: are they recognized above chance rates? J Forensic Sci 46(3):432–440

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. George RM (1987) The lateral craniographic method of facial reconstruction. J Forensic Sci 32(5):1305–1330

    Google Scholar 

  28. Wilkinson C (2004) Facial approximation: comments on Stephan (2003). Am J Phys Anthropol 125(4):329–330

  29. Gibson L (2008) Forensic art essentials. Elsevier, Burlington

    Google Scholar 

  30. Gatliff BP, Taylor KT (2001) Three-dimensional facial reconstruction on the skull. In: Taylor KT (ed) Forensic art and illustration. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 419–475

    Google Scholar 

  31. Guyomarc’h P, Santos F, Dutailly B, Coqueugniot H (2013) Facial soft tissue depths in French adults: variability, specificity and estimation. Forensic Sci Int 231(1–3):411.e1–10

  32. R Core Team (2013) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL: http://www.R-project.org/

  33. C-Table (v2014.1) The collaborative facial soft tissue depth data store. www.CRANIOFACIALidentification.com. Last accessed 23 Oct 2014

  34. Manhein MH, Listi GA, Barsley RE, Musselman R, Barrow NE, Ubelaker DH (2000) In vivo facial tissue depth measurements for children and adults. J Forensic Sci 45(1):48–60

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Ligthelm-Bakker ASWMR, Prahl-Andersen B, Wattel E, Uljee IH (1991) A new method for locating anterior skeletal landmarks from soft tissue measurements. J Biol Buccale 19(4):283–290

  36. Welcker H (1883) Schiller’s Schädel und Todtenmaske, nebst Mittheilungen über Schädel und Todtenmaske kant’s. Viehweg F and Son, Braunschweig

    Google Scholar 

  37. His W (1895) Anatomische Forschungen über Johann Sebastian Bach’s Gebeine und Antlitz nebst Bemerkungen über dessen Bilder. Abh Math Physikalischen Klasse Königlichen Sachsischen Ges Wiss 22:379–420

    Google Scholar 

  38. Kollmann J, Büchly W (1898) Die Persistenz der Rassen und die Reconstruction der Physiognomie prahistorischer Schädel. Arch Anthropol 25:329–359

    Google Scholar 

  39. Czekanowski J (1907) Untersuchungen über das Verhältnis der Kopfmaßse zu den Schädelmaßsen. Arch Anthropol 6:42–89

    Google Scholar 

  40. Leopold D (1968) Identifikation durch Schädeluntersuchung unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Superprojektion. Karl-Marx-Universitat, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  41. Sutton PRN (1969) Bizygomatic diameter: the thickness of the soft tissues over the zygions. Am J Phys Anthropol 30(2):303–310

  42. Rhine JS, Moore CE (1984) Tables of facial tissue thickness of American Caucasoids in forensic anthropology. Maxwell Museum Technical Series 1

  43. Forrest AS (1985) An investigation into the relationship between facial soft tissue thickness and age in Australian Caucasion cadavers. The University of Queensland, Brisbane

    Google Scholar 

  44. Blythe T (1996) A re-assessment of the Rhine and Moore technique in forensic facial reconstruction. Honours Thesis. The University of Manchester, Manchester

  45. Simpson E, Henneberg M (2002) Variation in soft-tissue thicknesses on the human face and their relation to craniometric dimensions. Am J Phys Anthropol 118(2):121–133

  46. Sutisno M (2003) Human facial soft-tissue thickness and its value in forensic facial reconstruction. The University of Sydney, Sydney

    Google Scholar 

  47. Domaracki M, Stephan CN (2006) Facial soft tissue thicknesses in Australian adult cadavers. J Forensic Sci 51(1):5–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Stewart TD (1954) Evaluation of evidence from the skeleton. In: Gradwohl RBH (ed) Legal medicine. C. V. Mosby, St. Louis, pp 407–450

    Google Scholar 

  49. Suzuki H (1948) On the thickness of the soft parts of the Japanese face. J Anthropol Soc Nippon 60:7–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Birkner F (1904) Beiträge zur rassenanatomie der gesichtsweichteile. Corr Bl Anthrop Ges Jhg 34:163–165

    Google Scholar 

  51. Rhine JS, Campbell HR (1980) Thickness of facial tissues in American blacks. J Forensic Sci 25(4):847–858

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Hv E (1909) Anatomische untersuchungen an den Köpfen con cier Hereros, einem Herero- und einem Hottentottenkind. In: Schultze L (ed) Forschungsreise im westrichen und zentraien Sudafrika. Denkschriften, Jena, pp 323–348

    Google Scholar 

  53. Burkitt AN, Lightoller GHS (1923) Preliminary observations on the nose of the Australian aboriginal with a table of aboriginal head measurements. J Anat 57(3):295–312

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Fischer (1905) Anatomische Untersuchungen an den Kopfweichteilen zweier Papua. Corr BL Anthrop Ges Jhg 36:118–122

    Google Scholar 

  55. Stadtmüller F (1922) Zur Beurteilung der plastischen Rekonstruktionsmethode der Physiognomie auf dem Schädel. Z Morpholologie Anthropol 22:337–372

    Google Scholar 

  56. Rhine S (1983) Tissue thickness for Southwestern Indians. University of New, Mexico

    Google Scholar 

  57. Welcker H (1896) Das Profil des menschlichen Schädels mit Röntgenstrahlen am Lebenden dargestellt. Korrespondenz Blatt Dtsch Ges Anthropol Ethnol Urgeschichte 27:38–39

    Google Scholar 

  58. Subtelny JD (1959) A longitudinal study of soft tissue facial structures and their profile characteristics, defined in relation to underlying skeletal structures. Am J Orthod 45(7):481–507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Helwin H (1969) Die profilanalyse, eine Möglichkeit der identifizierung unbekannter Schädel. Gegenbaurs Morphologisches Jb 113:467–499

    Google Scholar 

  60. Sarnas K-V, Solow B (1980) Early adult changes in the skeletal and soft-tissue profile. Eur J Orthod 2(1):1–12

  61. Dumont ER (1986) Mid-facial tissue depths of white children: an aid in facial feature reconstruction. J Forensic Sci 31(4):1463–1469

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Nanda RS, Meng H, Kapila S, Goorhuis J (1990) Growth changes in the soft tissue facial profile. Angle Orthod 60(3):177–190

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lebedinskaya GV, Balueva TS, Veselovskaya EV (1993) Principles of facial reconstruction. In: Iscan MY, Helmer RP (eds) Forensic analysis of the skull. Wiley-Liss, New York, pp 183–198

    Google Scholar 

  64. Formby WA, Nanda RS, Currier GF (1994) Longitudinal changes in the adult facial profile. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 105(5):464–476

  65. Michelow BJ, Guyuron B (1995) The chin: skeletal and soft-tissue components. Plast Reconstr Surg 95(3):473–478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Garlie TN, Saunders SR (1999) Midline facial tissue thicknesses of subadults from a longitudinal radiographic study. J Forensic Sci 44(1):61–67

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Smith SL, Buschang PH (2001) Midsagittal facial tissue thickness of children and adolescents from the Montreal growth study. J Forensic Sci 46(6):1294–1302

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Edelman H (1938) Die profilanalyse: eine studie an photographischen und röntgenographischen durchdringungsbildern. Z Morpholologie Anthropol 37:166–188

    Google Scholar 

  69. Gerasimov MM (1955) Vosstanovlenie lica po cerepu. Izdat. Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moskva

    Google Scholar 

  70. Kasai K (1998) Soft tissue adaptability to hard tissues in facial profile. Am J Dentofac Orthop 113(6):674–684

  71. Miyasaka S (1999) Progress in facial reconstruction technology. Forensic Sci Rev 11(1):50–90

    Google Scholar 

  72. Ogawa H (1960) Anatomical study on the Japanese head by X-ray cephalometry. J Tokyo Dent Coll Soc Shika Gakuho 60:17–34

    Google Scholar 

  73. Aulsebrook WA, Becker PJ, Iscan MY (1996) Facial soft-tissue thickness in the adult male Zulu. Forensic Sci Int 79(2):83–102

  74. Helmer R (1984) Schädelidentifizierung durch elekronicshe Bildmischung: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Konstitutionsbiometrie und Dickenmessung der Gesichtsweichteile. Krminalistik-Verlag, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  75. El-Mehallawi IH, Soliman EM (2001) Ultrasonic assessment of facial soft tissue thickness in adult Egyptians. Forensic Sci Int 117(1–2):99–107

  76. Phillips VM, Smuts NA (1996) Facial reconstruction: utilization of computerized tomography to measure facial tissue thickness in a mixed racial population. Forensic Sci Int 83(1):51–59

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Sahni D, Jit I, Gupta M, Singh P, Suri S (2002) Preliminary study on facial soft tissue thickness by magnetic resonance imaging in Northwest Indians. Forensic Science Communications 4 (1)

  78. Niinimaki S, Karttunen A Finnish facial tissue thickness study. In: Herva V-P (ed) Proceedings of the 22nd Nordic Archaeological Conference, University of Oulu, 2006. Gummerus Kirjapaino Oy, pp 343–352

  79. Montagu A (1935) The location of the nasion in the living. Am J Phys Anthropol 20(1):81–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Tedeschi-Oliveira SV, Melani RFH, de Almeida NH, de Paiva LA (2009) Facial soft tissue thickness of Brazilian adults. Forensic Sci Int 193(1–3):127.e1–7

  81. Codinha S (2009) Facial soft tissue thicknesses for the Portuguese adult population. Forensic Sci Int 184(1–3):80.e1–7

  82. Kim K-D, Ruprecht A, Wang G, Lee JB, Dawson DV, Vannier MW (2005) Accuracy of facial soft tissue thickness measurements in personal computer-based multiplanar reconstructed computed tomographic images. Forensic Sci Int 155:28–34

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Suazo GIC, Cantin LM, Zavando MDA, PRF J, Torres MSR (2008) Comparisons in soft-tissue thicknesses on the human face in fresh and embalmed corpses using needle puncture method. Int J Morphol 26:165–169

    Google Scholar 

  84. Smith SL, Throckmorton GS (2006) Comparability of radiographic and 3D-ultrasound measurements of facial midline tissue depths. J Forensic Sci 51(2):244–247

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Kurkcuoglu A, Pelin C, Ozener B, Zagyapan R, Sahinoglu Z, Yazici AC (2011) Facial soft tissue thickness in individuals with different occlusion patterns in adult Turkish subjects. Homo 62(4):288–297

  86. Utsuno H, Kageyama T, Uchida K, Yoshino M, Oohigashi S, Miyazawa H (2010) Pilot study of facial soft tissue thickness differences among three skeletal classes in Japanese females. Forensic Sci Int 195(1–3):165.e1–5

  87. Chen F, Chen Y, Yu Y, Qiang Y, Liu M, Fulton D (2011) Age and sex related measurement of craniofacial soft tissue thickness and nasal profile in the Chinese population. Forensic Sci Int 212(1–3):272.e1–6

  88. Tilotta F, Richard F, Glaunes J, Berar M, Gey S, Verdeille S, Rozenholc Y, Gaudy JF (2009) Construction and analysis of a head CT-scan database for craniofacial reconstruction. Forensic Sci Int 191(1–3):112.e1–12

  89. Paneková P, Beňuš R, Masnicová S, Obertová Z, Grunt J (2012) Facial soft tissue thicknesses of the mid-face for Slovak population. Forensic Sci Int 220(1–3):293.e1–6

  90. Cavanagh D, Steyn M (2011) Facial reconstruction: soft tissue thickness values for South African black females. Forensic Sci Int 206(1–3):215.e1–7

  91. Sahni D, Sanjeev SD, Jit I, Singh P (2008) Facial soft tissue thickness in northwest Indian adults. Forensic Sci Int 176(2–3):137–146

  92. Sipahioglu S, Ulubay H, Diren HB (2012) Midline facial soft tissue thickness database of Turkish population: MRI study. Forensic Sci Int 219(1–3):282.e1–8

  93. Vander Pluym J, Shan WW, Taher Z, Beaulieu C, Plewes C, Peterson AE, Beatties OB, Bamforth JS (2007) Use of magnetic resonance imaging to measure facial soft tissue depth. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 44(1):52–57

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Köstler J (1940) Röntgenstereoskopische Messungen der Weichteildicken in der Medianebene des Gesichtes an zwanzig jungen Personen weiblichen Geschlechtes. Friedrich Alexanders Universiťäť, Erlangen

    Google Scholar 

  95. Bankovski IM (1958) Die Bedeutung der Unterkieferform und-stellung fur die phtographische Schädelidentifizierung. Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  96. Weining W (1958) Röntgenologische Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung der WeichteildickenmaBe des Gesichts. Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt

    Google Scholar 

  97. Weiβer (1940) Röntgenstereoskopische Messungen der Weichteildicken in der Medianebene des Gesichts an 20 jungen Mannern. Friedrich Alexanders Universiťäť, Erlagen

    Google Scholar 

  98. Martin R, Saller K (1957) Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, vol Band I. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  99. O’Grady JF, Taylor RG, Clement JG Facial tissue thickness: a study of cadavers in Melbourne. In: International Association of Forensic Science Scientific Symposium, Adelaide, 1990

  100. Taylor RG, Angel C (1998) Facial reconstruction and approximation. In: Clement JG, Ranson DL (eds) Craniofacial identification in forensic medicine. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 177–185

    Google Scholar 

  101. Guyomarc’h P, Stephan C (2014) Facial soft tissue thicknesses in craniofacial identification: performance tests of means, shorths, shormaxes and regressions. International Journal of Legal Medicine. In review

  102. Wilkinson C, Rynn C, Peters H, Taister M, How Kau C, Richmond S (2006) A blind accuracy assessment of computer-modeled forensic facial reconstruction using computed tomography data from live subjects. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2(3):179–187

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Guyomarc’h P, Dutailly B, Charton J, Santos F, Desbarats P, Coqueugniot H (2014) Anthropological facial approximation in three dimensions (AFA3D): computer-assisted estimation of the facial morphology using geometric morphometrics. J Forensic Sci. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.1254

Download references

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest. The data utilized in this study were drawn from the free and publicly available C-table data repository housed at www.CRANIOFACIALidentification.com.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia

    Carl N. Stephan

Authors
  1. Carl N. Stephan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carl N. Stephan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Stephan, C.N. Accuracies of facial soft tissue depth means for estimating ground truth skin surfaces in forensic craniofacial identification. Int J Legal Med 129, 877–888 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-014-1113-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-014-1113-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation