Abstract
The Solfatara area and its fumaroles are the main surface expression of the vigorous hydrothermal activity within the active Campi Flegrei caldera system. At depth, a range of volcanic and structural processes dictate the actual state of the hydrothermal system below the crater. The presence of a large variety of volcanic products at shallow depth (including pyroclastic fallout ash beds, pyroclastic density current deposits, breccias, and lavas), and the existence of a maar-related fault system appears to exert major controls on the degassing and alteration behavior. Adding further to the complexity of this environment, variations in permeability and porosity, due to subsoil lithology and alteration effects, may further influence fluid flow towards the surface. Here, we report results from a field campaign conducted in July 2015 that was designed to characterize the in situ physical (temperature, humidity) and mechanical (permeability, strength, stiffness) properties of the Solfatara crater subsoil. The survey also included a mapping of the surficial hydrothermal features and their distributions. Finally, laboratory measurements (porosity, granulometry) of selected samples were performed. Our results enable the discrimination of four main subsoils around the crater: (1) the Fangaia domain located in a topographic low in the southwestern sector, (2) the silica flat domain on the western altered side, (3) the new crust domain in the central area, and (4) the crusted hummocks domain that dominates the north, east, and south parts. These domains are surrounded by encrusted areas, reworked material, and vegetated soil. The distribution of these heterogeneous subsoils suggests that their formation is mostly related to (i) the presence of the Fangaia domain within the crater and (ii) a system of ring faults bordering it. The subsoils show an alternation between very high and very low permeabilities, a fact which seems to affect both the temperature distribution and surficial degassing. A large range of surface temperatures (from 25 up to 95 °C) has been measured across these surfaces, with the hottest spot corresponding to the mud pools, the area of new crust formation, and the crusted hummocks. In the subsoil, the distribution of temperature is more complex and controlled by the presence of coarser, and more permeable, sandy/pebbly levels. These act as preferential pathways for hot hydrothermal fluid circulation. In contrast, low permeability, fine-grained levels act as thermal insulators that remain relatively cold and hinder fluid escape to the surface. Hot gases reach the surface predominantly along (vertical) fractures. When this occurs, mound-like structures can be formed by a cracking and healing process associated with significant degassing. It is anticipated that the results presented here may contribute to an improved understanding of the hazard potential associated with the ongoing hydrothermal activity within the Solfatara crater. At this site the permeability of the near-surface environment and its changes in space and time can affect the spatial and temporal distribution of gas and heat emission. Particularly, in areas where reduction in permeability occurs, it can produce pore pressure augmentation that may result in explosive events.
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Acknowledgements
CM and BS acknowledge the support of the European Commission (FP7-MC-ITN, grant no. 289976: NEMOH). BS, KM, and DBD acknowledge the support from the EC FP7 under grant agreement no. 282759 (VUELCO). CM, BS and DBD acknowledge the support from EC FP7 grant agreement No 308665 (MED-SUV). DBD and KM acknowledge the support of ERC advanced grant no. 247076 (EVOKES). Great thanks go to Annarita Mangiacapra for the discussion and the help during field activity and to Albert B. Gilg for the help in carrying out and interpreting XRD analysis. ERT computations presented in this paper were performed using the Froggy platform of the CIMENT infrastructure (https://ciment.ujf-grenoble.fr), which is supported by the Rhône-Alpes region (GRANT CPER07_13 CIRA), the OSUG@2020 labex (reference ANR10 LABX56), and the Equip@Meso project (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d’Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche. We further acknowledge the reviewers Michael Heap and Micol Todesco, as well as the editors Lucia Capra and Andrew Harris, whose comments significantly improved the manuscript.
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Highlights
• The Solfatara crater floor comprises four major subsoil domains.
• Permeability of subsoil lithologies varies from > 5.6 × 10−12 to < 5.6 × 10−16 m2.
• Thin impermeable layers can control the location of degassing sites at the surface.
• Permeable and often sulfur-hardened coarse lithologies work as fluid pathways.
• Areas of high degassing are characterized by the formation of crusted hummocks.
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Montanaro, C., Mayer, K., Isaia, R. et al. Hydrothermal activity and subsoil complexity: implication for degassing processes at Solfatara crater, Campi Flegrei caldera. Bull Volcanol 79, 83 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-017-1167-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-017-1167-z