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Gender, Race, and Minority Stress Among Sexual Minority Women: An Intersectional Approach

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Abstract

Previous research examining the relationship between gender-role presentation and minority stress has largely focused on the negative effects of gender nonconformity. Some research suggests, however, that gender-role nonconformity may be protective against minority stress via participation in sexual minority in-group norms, which may include rejecting traditional gender-role norms and gender presentation. Historically, the meaning and value of masculinity and femininity within sexual minority communities has varied by race/ethnicity. As such, race/ethnicity may moderate the links between gender and minority stressors. This study used a diverse sample of sexual minority women (SMW) (N = 612) and separate indicators of masculinity and femininity to examine the effects of gender role on distal (victimization and discrimination) and proximal (internalized homophobia and stigma consciousness) measures of minority stress. We used multivariate generalized linear models to determine whether the effects of masculinity and femininity on the minority stress outcomes were moderated by race/ethnicity. We found that in many cases the relationships between masculinity and femininity and minority stress varied across racial/ethnic groups, and in fact, worked in opposite directions for White SMW compared to Black and Latina SMW. For example, our results showed that masculinity was associated with lower levels of victimization, discrimination, and stigma consciousness among Black and Latina SMW, but higher levels among White SMW. Results from this study suggest that these differences have important implications for exposure to minority stress.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01 AA013328 PI: Hughes).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology, University of Utah, 380 S 1530 E, Rm 301, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA

    Bethany G. Everett

  2. Department of Sociology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Sarah M. Steele

  3. Department of Health Systems Science, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Alicia K. Matthews

  4. School of Nursing and Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York City, NY, USA

    Tonda L. Hughes

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  1. Bethany G. Everett
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Correspondence to Bethany G. Everett.

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Appendix: Minority Stress Indicator Scales and Items

Appendix: Minority Stress Indicator Scales and Items

Discrimination

  • During the last 12 months, how often did you experience discrimination in your ability to obtain health care or health insurance coverage?

  • During the last 12 months, how often have you experienced discrimination in how you were treated when you got care?

  • During the last 12 months, how often have you experienced discrimination in public, like on the street or in stores of restaurants?

  • During the last 12 months, how often have you experienced discrimination in any other situation, like obtaining a job or on the job, getting admitted to a school or training program, in the courts of by the police?

  • During the last 12 months, how often were you called names because of discrimination?

  • During the last 12 months, how often were you made fun of, picked on, pushed, shoved, hit or threatened with harm because of discrimination?

Lesbian Stigma Consciousness

  • Stereotypes about lesbians have not affected me personally.

  • I never worry that my behaviors will be viewed as stereotypical of lesbians.

  • When interacting with heterosexuals who know of my sexual orientation, I feel like they interpret all of my behaviors in terms of the fact that I am lesbian.

  • Most heterosexuals do not judge lesbians on the basis of their sexual orientation.

  • My being lesbian does not influence how lesbians act with me.

  • I almost never think about the fact that I am lesbian when I interact with heterosexuals.

  • My being lesbian does not influence how people act with me.

  • Most heterosexuals have a lot more homophobic thoughts than they actually express.

  • I often think that heterosexuals are unfairly accused of being homophobic.

  • Most heterosexuals have a problem viewing lesbians as research.

Bisexual Stigma Consciousness

  • Stereotypes about bisexuality have affected me personally.

  • I worry that certain behaviors will be viewed as stereotypically bisexual.

  • I feel that I have been treated with less respect because of my bisexuality.

  • I fear that lesbians will reject me because of my bisexuality.

  • I fear that gay men will reject me because of my bisexuality.

  • I fear that heterosexual men will reject me because of my bisexuality.

  • I fear that heterosexual women will reject me because of my bisexuality.

  • Most heterosexual people have a problem with bisexual people.

  • Most lesbian and gay people have a problem with bisexual people.

  • I feel that others view my bisexual identity as “untrue” or not a real identity.

  • Sometimes I wish I weren’t bisexual.

Internalized Homophobia

  • I have no regrets about being lesbian/gay/bisexual.

  • I have tried to stop being attracted to women in general.

  • I am proud that I am lesbian/bisexual.

  • If someone offered me the chance to be completely heterosexual, I would accept the chance.

  • I wish I weren’t lesbian/bisexual.

  • Being lesbian/bisexual is a satisfactory and acceptable way of life for me.

  • I feel that being a lesbian/bisexual is a personal shortcoming for me.

  • As a lesbian/bisexual, I am loveable and deserving of respect.

  • I would like to get professional help in order to change my sexual orientation.

  • I am not worried about anyone finding out that I am a lesbian/bisexual.

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Everett, B.G., Steele, S.M., Matthews, A.K. et al. Gender, Race, and Minority Stress Among Sexual Minority Women: An Intersectional Approach. Arch Sex Behav 48, 1505–1517 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1421-x

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