Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Do fences constrain predator movements on an evolutionary scale? Home range, food intake and movement patterns of large predators reintroduced to Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Biodiversity and Conservation Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Fencing conservation areas is ubiquitous in South Africa, however, the impact of these on predator ecology has not been tested. We used relationships between prey abundance and predator space use to create equations to predict the home range size of lions Panthera leo and leopards Panthera pardus. We then successfully tested these predictions using published data (Phinda, Makalali) and home range estimates from radio collared individuals reintroduced to Addo Elephant National Park. Spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta ranges also seem food dependent. Lion home ranges in Addo (114 ± 5 km2) required 180 fixes to be accurately estimated, spotted hyaena ranges (91 ± 10 km2) required 200 fixes, and the solitary leopard had 295 fixes for a range of 38 km2. There were no sexual differences in home range sizes of lions or hyaenas. The daily food intake rate of lions, measured during continuous follows, was 9.8 kg per female equivalent unit. Dominant male lions (14.3 km for 8.3 kg) traveled furthest but obtained the least amount of food per day compared to subordinate males (8.9 km for 16.0 kg) and females (5.8 km for 17.9 kg). Subordinate males traveled the fastest and during the day, to avoid competition and harassment from the dominant males. From an evolutionary viewpoint, the use of fences for conservation has not affected the natural behaviour of the predators as they still conform to predictions derived from unfenced reserves; that is, prey abundance is the key factor in determining space use of large predators.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bailey TN (1993) The African leopard: ecology and behavior of a solitary field. Columbia University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer H, De Iongh HH (2005) Lion (Panthera leo) home ranges and livestock conflicts in Waza National Park, Cameroon. Afr J Ecol 43:208–214. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00570.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer H, Van der Merwe S (2004) Inventory of free-ranging lions Panthera leo in Africa. Oryx 38:26–31. doi:10.1017/S0030605304000055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger KM, Gese EM (2007) Does interference competition with wolves limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes? J Anim Ecol 76:1075–1085. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01287.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger J, Swenson JE, Persson I-L (2001) Recolonizing carnivores and naive prey: conservation lessons from Pleistocene extinctions. Science 291:1036–1039. doi:10.1126/science.1056466

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertram BCB (1975) Weights and measures of lions. Af Wildl J 13:141–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumenschine RJ, Caro TM (1986) Unit flesh weights of some East African bovids. Afr J Ecol 24:273–286. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1986.tb00371.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bothma JdP, le Riche EAN (1984) Aspects of the ecology and the behaviour of the leopard Panthera pardus in the Kalahari Desert. Koedoe Suppl 84:259–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Boydston EE, kapheim KM, Szykman M et al (2003) Individual variation in space use by female spotted hyenas. J Mammal 84:1006–1018. doi:10.1644/BOS-038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradfield M (2005) Addo Elephant National Park—official guide. South African National Parks, Port Elizabeth

    Google Scholar 

  • Carbone C, Gittleman JL (2002) A common rule for the scaling of carnivore density. Science 295:2273–2276. doi:10.1126/science.1067994

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carbone C, Mace GM, Roberts SC et al (1999) Energetic constraints on the diet of terrestrial carnivores. Nature 402:286–288. doi:10.1038/46266

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Creel S, Creel NM (1996) Limitation of African wild dogs by competition with larger carnivores. Conserv Biol 10:526–538. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020526.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Solla SR, Bonduriansky R, Brooks RJ (1999) Eliminating autocorrelation reduces biological relevance of home range estimates. J Anim Ecol 68:221–234. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2656.1999.00279.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Druce D, Genis H, Greatwood S et al (2004) Population demography and spatial ecology of a reintroduced lion population in the Greater Makalali Conservancy, South Africa. Koedoe 47:103–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott JP, Cowan IM (1978) Territoriality, density, and prey of the lion in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. Can J Zool 56:1726–1734

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eloff FC (1973) Lion predation in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park. J SA Wildl Manage Assoc 3:59–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Funston PJ (2001) Kalahari Transfrontier Lion Project, ed. South African National Parks, Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Endangered Wildlife Trust, Carnivore Conservation Group, WWF. The Green Trust, Pretoria

  • Funston PJ, Mills MGL, Biggs HC et al (1998) Hunting by male lions: ecological influences and socioecological implications. Anim Behav 56:1333–1345. doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.0884

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Funston PJ, Mills MGL, Richardson PRK et al (2003) Reduced dispersal and opportunistic territory acquisition in male lions (Panthera leo). J Zool (Lond) 259:131–142. doi:10.1017/S0952836902003126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman JL, Harvey PH (1982) Carnivore home-range size, metabolic needs and ecology. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 10:57–63. doi:10.1007/BF00296396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green B, Anderson J, Whateley A (1984) Water and sodium turnover and estimated food consumption in free-living lions (Panthera leo) and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta). J Mammal 65:593–599. doi:10.2307/1380842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW (2006) Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta and evidence of dietary competition with lion Panthera leo. J Zool 270:606–614. doi:610.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00184.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Hayward GJ (2007) Activity patterns of reintroduced lion Panthera leo and spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Afr J Ecol 45:135–141. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00686.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Kerley GIH (2005) Prey preferences of the lion (Panthera leo). J Zool (Lond) 267:309–322. doi:10.1017/S0952836905007508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, de Tores PJ, Augee ML et al (2004) Home range and movements of the quokka Setonix brachyurus (Macropodidae: Marsupialia), and its impact on the viability of the metapopulation on the Australian mainland. J Zool (Lond) 263:219–228. doi:10.1017/S0952836904005060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Henschel P, O’Brien J et al (2006) Prey preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus). J Zool (Lond) 270:298–313

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Adendorff J, Moolman LC et al (2007a) The successful reintroduction of leopard Panthera pardus to the Addo Elephant National Park. Afr J Ecol 45:103–104. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00673.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O’Brien J et al (2007b) Practical considerations for the reintroduction of large, terrestrial, mammalian predators based on reintroductions to South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province. Open Conserv Biol J 1:1–11. doi 10.2174/1874-8392/2107 http://www.bentham-open.org/crdsb/?TOCONSBJ/2007/00000001/00000001/00000001TOCONSBJ.sgm

  • Hayward MW, Adendorff J, O’Brien J et al (2007c) The reintroduction of large carnivores to the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa: an assessment. Oryx 41:205–214. doi:10.1017/S0030605307001767

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, Hofmeyr M, O’Brien J et al (2007d) Testing predictions of the prey of the lion (Panthera leo) derived from modelled prey preferences. J Wildl Manage 71:1567–1575. doi:10.2193/2006-264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward MW, O’Brien J, Kerley GIH (2007e) Carrying capacity of large African predators: predictions and tests. Biol Conserv 139:219–229. doi:210.1016/j.biocon.2007.1006.1018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemson G (2003) The ecology and conservation of lions: human-wildlife conflict in semi-arid Botswana. PhD Dissertation, University of Oxford

  • Hofer H, East ML (1993) The commuting system of Serengeti spotted hyaenas: how a predator copes with migratory prey. III. Attendance and maternal care. Anim Behav 46:575–589. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter LTB (1998) The behavioural ecology of reintroduced lions and cheetahs in the Phinda Resource Reserve, kwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. PhD Thesis, University of Pretoria

  • Hunter LTB, Skinner JD (1998) Vigilance behaviour in African ungulates: the role of predation pressure. Behaviour 135:195–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Jetz W, Carbone C, Fulford J et al (2004) The scaling of animal space use. Science 306:266–268. doi:10.1126/science.1102138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kenward RE, Hodder KH (1992) Ranges V—an analysis system for biological location data. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Furzebrook Research Station, Wareham

    Google Scholar 

  • le Roux PG, Skinner JD (1989) A note on the ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus Linnaeus) in the Londolozi Game Reserve, South Africa. Afr J Ecol 27:167–171. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1989.tb00940.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macdonald DW (1983) The ecology of carnivore social behaviour. Nature 301:379–384. doi:10.1038/301379a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Makacha S, Schaller GB (1969) Observations on lions in the Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania. Af Wildl J 7:99–103

    Google Scholar 

  • Marker L, Dickman AJ (2005) Factors affecting leopard (Panthera pardus) spatial ecology, with particular reference to Namibian farmlands. S Afr J Wildl Res 35:105–115

    Google Scholar 

  • McDougal C (1988) Leopard and tiger interactions at Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 85:609–610

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills MGL (1992) A comparison of methods used to study food habits of large African carnivores. In: McCulloch C, Barret RH (eds) Wildlife 2001: Populations. Elsevier, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills MGL, Gorman ML (1997) Factors affecting the density and distribution of wild dogs in the Kruger National Park. Conserv Biol 11:1397–1406. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96252.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mizutani F, Jewell PA (1998) Home-range and movements of leopards (Panthera pardus) on a livestock ranch in Kenya. J Zool (Lond) 244:269–286. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1998.tb00031.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsen EB, Linnell JDC (2006) Intra-specific variation and taxa-sampling affects the home range–body mass relationship. Acta Theriol (Warsz) 51:225–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogutu JO, Dublin HT (2004) Spatial dynamics of lions and their prey along an environmental gradient. Afr J Ecol 42:8–42. doi:10.1111/j.0141-6707.2004.00440.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Packer C, Pusey AE (1982) Cooperation and competition within coalitions of males lions: kin selection or game theory? Nature 296:740–742. doi:10.1038/296740a0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Packer C, Scheel D, Pusey AE (1990) Why lions form groups: food is not enough. Am Nat 136:1–19. doi:10.1086/285079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Packer C, Hilborn R, Mosser A et al (2005) Ecological change, group territoriality, and population dynamics in Serengeti lions. Science 307:390–392. doi:10.1126/science.1105122

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff FGT, du Toit JT (2004) Large predators and their prey in a southern African savanna: a predator’s size determines its prey size range. J Anim Ecol 73:410–423. doi:10.1111/j.0021-8790.2004.00817.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahimi S, Owen-Smith N (2007) Movement patterns of sable antelope in the Kruger National Park from GPS/GSM collars: a preliminary assessment. S Afr J Wildl Res 37:143–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rapson JA, Bernard RTF (2007) Interpreting the diet of lions (Panthera leo); a comparison of various methods of analysis. S Afr J Wildl Res 37:179–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudnai J (1973) Reproductive biology of lions (Panthera leo massaica Neumann) in Nairobi National Park. Af Wildl J 11:241–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudnai J (1974) The pattern of lion predation in Nairobi Park. Af Wildl J 12:213–225

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller GB (1972) The Serengeti lion. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts GL (1976) Population characteristics and recent history of lions in two parts of the Kruger National Park. Koedoe 19:153–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts GL (1979) Diet of lions and spotted hyaenas assessed from stomach contents. S Afr J Wildl Res 9:19–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Spong G (2002) Space use in lions, Panthera leo, in the Selous Game Reserve: social and ecological factors. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 52:303–307. doi:10.1007/s00265-002-0515-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stander PE (1991) Demography of lions in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Madoqua 18:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Stander PE, Haden PJ, Kaqece et al (1997) The ecology of asociality in Namibian leopards. J Zool (Lond) 242:343–364

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuart CT, Stuart T (2000) Field guide to the larger mammals of Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town

    Google Scholar 

  • Swihart RK, Slade NA (1985a) Influence of sampling intervals on estimates of home-range size. J Wildl Manage 49:1019–1025. doi:10.2307/3801388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swihart RK, Slade NA (1985b) Testing for independence of observations in animal movements. Ecology 66:1176–1184. doi:10.2307/1939170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taru M, Kanda T, Sunobe T (2002) Alternative mating tactics of the gobiid fish, Bathygobius fuscus. J Ethol 20:9–12. doi:10.1007/s10164-002-0047-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilson RL, Henschel JR (1986) Spatial arrangement of spotted hyaena groups in a desert environment, Namibia. Afr J Ecol 24:173–180. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1986.tb00358.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Dyk G, Slotow R (2003) The effects of fences and lions on the ecology of African wild dogs reintroduced to Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa. Afr Zool 38:79–94

    Google Scholar 

  • van Orsdol KG (1982) Ranges and food habits of lions in Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. Symp Zool Soc Lond 49:325–340

    Google Scholar 

  • van Orsdol KG (1984) Foraging behaviour and hunting success of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. Afr J Ecol 22:79–99. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1984.tb00682.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Orsdol KG, Hanby JP, Bygott JD (1985) Ecological correlates of lion social organisation (Panthera leo). J Zool 206:97–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Viljoen PC (1993) The effects of changes in prey availability on lion predation in a large natural ecosystem in northern Botswana. Symp Zool Soc Lond 65:193–213

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlok JHJ, Euston-Brown DIW, Cowling RM (2003) Acocks’ Valley Bushveld 50 years on: new perspectives on the delimitation, characterisation and origin of subtropical thicket vegetation. S Afr J Bot 69:27–51

    Google Scholar 

  • West PM, Packer C (2002) Sexual selection, temperature, and the lion’s mane. Science 297:1339–1343. doi:10.1126/science.1073257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodroffe R, Ginsberg JR (2000) Ranging behaviour and vulnerability to extinction in carnivores. In: Gosling M, Sutherland WJ (eds) Behaviour and conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This project was supported by Budget Rent-a-Car, Eveready Batteries, CR Kennedy Pty Ltd, Leica, Continental Tyres, Wayne Linklater and the Centre for African Conservation Ecology at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, and was approved by the South African National Parks service (Project No. 2004-03-01GKER). MWH was assisted in the field by Ivan Philipson, Katie Gough, Heidi Grolsh and Michael Somers, and was supported by a Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University and then a National Research Foundation post doctoral fellowship. The write up of this research project has been supported by a Marie Curie Transfer of Knowledge Fellowship BIORESC of European Community’s Sixth Framework Programme under contract number MTKD-CT-2005-029957. Larry Ward and Phil Hayward of Lean & Hayward Pty Ltd assisted by converting latitude and longitude to UTM coordinates.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Dave J. Druce

    Present address: Regional Ecologist, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Hluhluwe, kwaZulu Natal, South Africa

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Marie Curie Research Fellow, Mammal Research Institute (EU Centre of Excellence), Polish Academy of Science, 17-230, Bialowieza, Poland

    Matt W. Hayward

  2. Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 77000, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

    Matt W. Hayward, Gina J. Hayward, Dave J. Druce & Graham I. H. Kerley

  3. School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Science, University of New South Wales, Kensington, 2052, Australia

    Matt W. Hayward

Authors
  1. Matt W. Hayward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gina J. Hayward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dave J. Druce
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Graham I. H. Kerley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Matt W. Hayward.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hayward, M.W., Hayward, G.J., Druce, D.J. et al. Do fences constrain predator movements on an evolutionary scale? Home range, food intake and movement patterns of large predators reintroduced to Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. Biodivers Conserv 18, 887–904 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9452-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9452-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation