Abstract
Growing concern about the negative effects experienced by youth exposed to cyberbullying victimization has led to a rapid increase of scientific inquiry in this area in recent years. However, few studies have focused on younger children despite some evidence suggesting substantial technology use among children in elementary school. To that end, the purpose of the present study was to explore change in cyberbullying victimization across time among a sample of elementary school students and to examine how such change impacted later health-related outcomes. A total of 660 and 960 3rd through 5th grade students participated in year one and year two of the study respectively. Latent-variable growth curve modeling (LGM) was used to examine changes in cyberbullying victimization across four waves of data and to explore the impact of these changes on later social, emotional and academic outcomes. Results revealed no consistent pattern of growth in victimization among participants over the course of the study. However, initial levels of cyberbullying victimization were significantly different from zero, suggesting that a notable number of participants reported exposure to this form of victimization at baseline data collection. Further, initial levels of cyberbullying victimization were found to have a significant impact on later health outcomes, including self-esteem and school connection with depressive symptoms approaching significance.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, R. E., Bartlett, N. H., & Bukowski, N. H. (2010). Peer victimization and social dominance as intervening variables of the link between peer liking and relational aggression. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30, 102–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431609342985.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Messer, S. C., Pickles, A., Winder, F., & Silver, D. (1995). The development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 237–249.
Bayar, Y., & Uçanok, Z. (2012). School social climate and generalized peer perception in traditional and cyberbullying status. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12, 2352–2358.
Beran, T. N., & Li, Q. (2007). The relationship between cyberbullying and school bullying. Journal of Student Wellbeing, 1, 15–33. https://doi.org/10.21913/JSW.v1i2.172.
Berne, S., Frisén, A., Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Scheithauer, H., Naruskov, K., & Luik, P., et al. (2013). Cyberbullying assessment instruments: a systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18, 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.022.
Biggs, B. K., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S. W., Little, T. D., & Dill, E. J. (2010). Peer victimization trajectories and their association with children’s affect in late elementary school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025409348560.
Bonanno, R. A., & Hymel, S. (2013). Cyber bullying and internalizing difficulties: above and beyond the impact of traditional forms of bullying. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9937-1.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (pp. 187–249). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press Inc.
Cassidy, W., Faucher, C., & Jackson, M. (2013). Cyberbullying among youth: a comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and application to policy and practice. School Psychology International, 34, 575–612. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034313479697.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
Common Sense Media. (2013). Zero to eight: children’s media use in America 2013. San Francisco: Common Sense Media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/zero-to-eight-childrens-media-use-in-america-2013.
Curran, P. J., Stice, E., & Chassis, L. (1997). The relation between adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use: a longitudinal random coefficients model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 130–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.65.1.130.
Daviss, W. B., Birmaher, B., Melhem, N. A., Axelson, D. A., Michaels, S. M., & Brent, D. A. (2006). Criterion validity of the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire for depressive episodes in clinic and non-clinic subjects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 927–934. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01646.x.
Dill, E. J., Vernberg, E. M., Fonagy, P., Twemlow, S. W., & Gamm, B. K. (2004). Negative affect in victimized children: the roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and attitudes towards bullying. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019768.31348.81.
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
Espelage, D. L., Bosworth, K., & Simon, T. R. (2000). Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01914.x.
Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643169.
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R. K., Turner, H. A., & Hamby, S. L. (2005). The victimization of children and youth: a comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment, 10, 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559504271287.
Fisher, B. W., Gardella, J. H., & Teurbe-Tolon, A. R. (2016). Peer cybervictimization among adolescents and the associated internalizing and externalizing problems: a meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 1727–1743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0541-z.
Furlong, & O’Brennan, L. (2011). Psychometric properties of the ADD Health School Connectedness Scale for 18 sociocultural groups. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 986–997. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20609.
Görzig, A., & Machackova, H. (2015). Cyberbullying from a socio-ecological perspective: a contemporary synthesis of findings from EU kids online. LSE, London: Media@LSE.
Hawley, P. H., & Williford, A. (2015). Articulating the theory of bullying intervention programs: views from the theory of planned behavior, ecological systems theory, and organizational science. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 37, 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.11.006.
Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Crump, A. D., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, victims and bully/victims: distinct groups of at-risk youth. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021001002.
Hemphill, S. A., Kotevski, A., & Heerde, J. A. (2015). Longitudinal associations between cyber-bullying perpetration and victimization and problem behavior and mental health problems in young Australians. International Journal of Public Health, 60, 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-014-0644-9.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14, 206–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.201.494133.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2012). Social influences on cyberbullying behaviors among middle and high school students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 711–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9902-4.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2016). 2016 cyberbullying data. Retrieved from http://www.cyberbullying.us
Holloway, D., Green, L., & Livingstone, S. (2013). Zero to eight. Young children and their internet use. LSE, London: EU Kids Online.
Juvonen, J., & Gross, E. F. (2008). Bullying experiences in cyberspace. The Journal of School Health, 78, 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00335.x.
Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.25.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22–S30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017.
Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & Agatston, P. W. (2012). Cyberbullying: Bullying in the digital age (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1073–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035618.
Law, D. M., Shapka, J. D., Hymel, S., Olson, B. F., & Waterhouse, T. (2011). The changing face of bullying: an empirical comparison between traditional and internet bulling and victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 226–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.09.004.
Lenhart, A. (2015). Teens, social media & technology overview 2015: smart phones facilitate shifts in communication landscape for teens. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Li, Q. (2007). New bottle but old wine: a research of cyberbullying in schools. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 1777–1791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.10.005.
Little, T. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Madden, M., Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., Cortesi, S., & Gasser, U. (2013). Teens and technology 2013. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.
von Marées, N., & Petermann, F. (2012). Cyberbullying: an increasing challenge for schools. School Psychology International, 33, 467–476.
Messer, S. C., Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Loeber, R., Van Kammen, W., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1995). Development of a short questionnaire for use in epidemiological studies of depression in children and adolescents: factor composition and structure across development. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 5, 251–262.
Monks, C. P., Robinson, S., & Worlidge, P. (2012). The emergence of cyberbullying: a survey of primary school pupils’ perceptions and experiences. School Psychology International, 33, 477–491. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034312445242.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus User’s Guide. 7th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
Nansel, T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R., Ruan, W., Simons-Morton, B., & Scheidt, P. (2001). Bullying behaviors among U.S. youth: prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2094–2100. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.16.2094.
Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: an overrated phenomenon? European. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 520–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.682358.
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2010). Cyberbullying and self-esteem. Journal of School Health, 80, 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2010.00549.x.
Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., & Tabor, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: findings from the National Longitudinal Study on adolescent health. JAMA, 278, 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1997.03550100049038.
Rhemtulla, M., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2011). Correlated longitudinal changes across linguistic, achievement, and psychomotor domains in early childhood: evidence for a global dimension of development. Developmental Science, 14, 1245–1254. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01071.x.
Rodkin, P. C., & Hodges, E. V. E. (2003). Bullies and victims in the peer ecology: four questions for psychologists and school professionals. School Psychology Review, 32, 384–400.
Robers, S., Zhang, J., Truman, J., & Synder, T.D. (2010). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2010 (NCES 2011–002/NCJ 230812). U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved from: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011002.pdf.
Rosenberg, M. (1986). Conceiving the Self. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Salmivalli, C., & Isaacs, J. (2005). Prospective relations among victimization, rejection, friendlessness, and children’s self- and peer-perceptions. Child Development, 76, 1161–1171. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00841.x-i1.
Sjursø, I. R., Fandrem, H., & Roland, E. (2016). Emotional problems in traditional and cyber victimization. Journal of School Violence, 15(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2014.996718.
Slonje, R., Smith, P. K., & Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and strategies for prevention. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.024.
Smith, P. K. (2012). Cyberbullying and cyber aggression. In S. R. Jimerson, A. B. Nickerson, M. J. Mayer & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety (pp. 93–103). New York, NY: Routledge.
Smith, P. K. (2015). The nature of cyberbullying and what we can do about it. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 15, 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12114.
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x.
Smokowski, P. R., Evans, C. B. R., & Cotter, K. L. (2014). The differential impacts of episodic, chronic, and cumulative physical bullying and cyberbullying: the effects of victimization on the school experiences, social support, and mental health of rural adolescents. Violence and Victims, 29, 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-13-00076.
Sourander, A., Brunstein Klomek, A., Ikonen, M., Lindroos, J., Luntamo, T., Koskelainen, M., Ristkari, T., & Helenius, H. (2010). Psychosocial risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents. Archives of General, 67, 720–728. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.79.
Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: a critical review a synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014.
Varni, J. W., Magnus, B., Stucky, B. D., Liu, Y., Quinn, H., & Thissen, D., et al. (2014). Psychometric properties of the PROMIS® pediatric Scales: precision, stability, and comparison of different scoring and administration options. Quality of Life Research, 23, 1233–1243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-013-0544-0.
Vernberg, E. M., Nelson, T. D., Fonagy, P., & Twemlow, S. W. (2011). Victimization, aggression, and visits to the school nurse for somatic complaints, illness, and physical injury. Pediatrics, 127, 842–848. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-3415.
Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56, 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002.
Ybarra, M. L., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, P. J. (2007). Examining the overlap in internet harassment and school bullying: implications for school intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S42–S50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.004.
Author contributions
K.J.D. codesigned and executed the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the paper. A.W. codesigned and executed the study, collaborated in the writing and editing of the final manuscript.
Funding
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Human subjects approval was obtained from the sponsoring university, the University of Kansas. Also, in accordance with these standards, informed parental consent and youth assent were obtained prior to data collection for each wave.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
DePaolis, K.J., Williford, A. Pathways from Cyberbullying Victimization to Negative Health Outcomes among Elementary School Students: a Longitudinal Investigation. J Child Fam Stud 28, 2390–2403 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1104-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1104-6