Abstract
This paper undertakes an in-depth analysis of six least developed countries (LDCs) in South and Southeast Asia to assess the extent of mainstreaming climate change adaptation into national development plans by reviewing their National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs), national development plans, and Strategic Programs for Climate Resilience (SPCRs) (where available). The paper proposes two perspectives to analyze the level of mainstreaming and five factors that may affect such a level. The results show that there is a significant difference in the success of their mainstreaming efforts: mainstreaming is relatively advanced in Bangladesh, limited in Lao People’s Democratic Republic, the Maldives, and Nepal, and still minimal in Bhutan and Cambodia. Among the factors, the study finds that the inter-ministerial coordination supported by the highest levels of government is most relevant to the success of mainstreaming, which is measured by the integration of climate adaptation consideration into development priorities and a country’s own initiatives, particularly those involving budget allocation. Recognition of the need for mainstreaming and monitoring and evaluation also affect the success of mainstreaming efforts in LDCs. Another important factor is to make adaptation plans compatible with national development plans in terms of their time horizon, and SPCRs effectively facilitate this process. As all countries still require external support for advancing mainstreaming, the role of development partners is instrumental. The paper points to issues that need to be incorporated in the relevant NAPAs including updating to facilitate mainstreaming.
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Notes
The NAPAs are documents that identify priority activities that respond to the urgent and immediate needs of LDCs with regard to adaptation to climate change.
The two LDCs that are not covered in this paper are Afghanistan and Myanmar. Afghanistan is still in the process of its national building, while Myanmar just resumed engagement with the international community. Nevertheless, Afghanistan developed its NAPA in 2009.
The SPCR is developed under the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR) of the Strategic Climate Fund established in the Multi-donor Climate Investment Funds (CIF). While NAPAs are intended to identify priority adaption projects, the PPCR was created in consideration of a need to integrate climate resilience into development planning and financing. The PPCR is designed to be country-led and country-driven, and build upon national development plans, NAPA, and other relevant country studies and strategies, and help countries move beyond the project stage to the programmatic level (CIF 2009). The SPCR, which includes an underlying investment program, is the output of the first phase of the PPCR; the PPCR’s second phase is to support the implementation of the SPCR. The PPCR is directly linked with large-scale funding under the CIF; the range of funding agreed for a single country pilot program is $40–50 million in grant resources and 75 % of the grant amount in concessional loans, both depending upon availability of resources.
Net ODA receipts of the average of the most recent 3 years (2007–2009) available on the website of the Development Assistance Committee of OECD were used for this purpose (OECD 2011). Although it is more appropriate to use gross ODA receipts to see the level of ODA inflows to the country, such data are not readily available.
From the information available on the UNFCCC website. Other priority projects may have been financed by sources other than LDCF. The same applies to other countries.
Bangladesh did not request grant financing for SPCR preparation, and was one of the first countries (together with Niger and Tajikistan) to seek endorsement of its SPCR from the PPCR sub-committee.
Based on an interview with an MOEF official made in 2012.
Based on the date of NAPA posted on the UNFCCC website as of December 2011.
Based on an interview with an MOEF official made in 2008.
Based on an interview with an NEC official made in 2012.
Based on an interview with an MOE official made in 2012.
This is mainly because only the Asian Development Bank (ADB) is expected to administer investments under SPCR. ADB does not have projects on public health in Cambodia. From an interview with a member of ADB staff.
WREA has been upgraded to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE).
Based on an interview with an MONRE official made in 2012.
the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water has been reorganized to the Ministry of Housing and Environment.
One initiative was the establishment of the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund in 2010, which is a multi-donor trust fund separate from the government’s trust fund, contributed by Denmark, the European Union, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, with technical support from the World Bank, to support the implementation of the BCCSAP. Development partners have contributed $125 million to date.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank government officials of LDCs who provided background information through the interviews. Special thanks go to Dr. Nobuo Mimura, Professor and Director, Institute of Global Change Adaptation Science, Ibaraki University, for his valuable guidance and comments. The views expressed in this paper are solely those of the author.
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Saito, N. Mainstreaming climate change adaptation in least developed countries in South and Southeast Asia. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change 18, 825–849 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-012-9392-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-012-9392-4