Abstract
This study examines two challenges related to the integration of environmental concerns into public policymaking: how to shape institutions that facilitate policy learning in national policymaking processes, and how to create effective supporting assessment processes. A simple construct of policy learning is applied empirically; distinguishing what is learned in terms of conceptual and technical learning, and unpacking the process of learning into three elements: knowledge acquisition, interpretation, and institutionalization. Two empirical policy cases, climate and nuclear policy formation in Sweden, are analyzed over two decades, detecting patterns of learning and investigating what institutions have facilitated or obstructed them. The analysis is based on a study of actual policy outputs, an examination of reasoning and argumentation in policy documents, and evidence from testimonial interviews. Results indicate that climate policy has undergone fundamental learning processes whereas nuclear policy has been more intractable. Most learning has occurred in some agency and committee processes, while ministries and political levels have suffered from weak capacities and incentives to learn. Key drivers of learning included trust building among key agents coupled to international driving forces. Ultimately, institutional rules, capacities, and incentives are more important factors for enhancing learning than what types of assessments feed in.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Energikonsult, Å. F. (2002). Barsebäck 2: Underlag för Prövning av Stängning (Barsebäck 2: Factual Basis for Consideration of Closure). Stockholm: Näringsdepartementet.
Anshelm, J. (2000). Mellan Frälsning och Domedag: om Kärnkraftens Politiska Idéhistoria i Sverige 1945–1999 (Between salvation and armageddon: On Nuclear Political History in Sweden 1945–1999). Stockholm: Brutus Östlings Bokförlag.
Argyris, C. and D. Schön (1978). Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Argyris, C. and D. Schön (1996). Organizational Learning II: Theory, Method and Practice. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
Azar, C. and K. Lindgren (1998). Energiläget år 2050 (The Energy Situation Year 2050). Stockholm: Naturvårdsverket.
Bennet, C. J. and M. Howlett (1992). ‘The lessons of learning: Reconciling theories of policy learning and policy change’, Policy Sciences 25: 275–294.
Brännlund, R. (2000). Effekter på Svensk Industri av Förändrad Koldioxidbeskattning (Impacts on Swedish Industry from Changed Carbon Dioxide Taxation) Report to the Swedish Commission on Climate Change. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Brännlund, R. (2003). Fördelningseffekter av Begränsad Utsläppshandel Kombinerat med Nationellt Utsläppstak (Distribution Effects of Limited Emissions Trading Combined with a National Cap) Expert Report to the Governmental Commission on Flexible Mechanisms in Climate Policy. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Brewer, G. and P. Stern, eds., (2005). Decision Making for the Environment: Social and Behavioral Science Research Priorities. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
de Bruijn, H. and E. ten Heuvelhof (2000). Networks and Decision Making. Utrecht: LEMMA.
COWI (2000). Evaluering af 1997s Energipolitiske Program: Analyse af Udvalgte Aspekter (Evaluation of the 1997 Energy Policy Program: Analysis of Selected Aspects).
Dekker, S. and D. Hansén (2004). ‘Learning under pressure: The effects of politicization on organizational learning in public bureaucracies’, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 14(2): 211–230.
Easterby-Smith, M. and M. A. Lyles eds. (2003). The Blackwell Handbook of Organizational Learning and Knowledge Management. Malden: Blackwell.
Energimyndigheten, Fjärrvärmeföreningen, Kraftverksföreningen and Naturvårdsverket (1999). Hållbar Energiframtid? Långsiktiga Miljömål med Systemlösningar för El och Värme. Slutrapport från SAME-projektet. Stockholm: Naturvårdsverkets förlag.
Energimyndigheten and Naturvårdsverket (2004). Sveriges Klimatstrategi: ett Underlag till Utvärderingen av det Svenska Klimatarbetet (Sweden's Climate Strategy: A Report for the Evaluation of Swedish Climate Efforts. Stockholm: Energimyndigheten.
European Commission (2004). Integrating Environmental Considerations into Other Policy Areas – A Stocktaking of the Cardiff Process. COM(2004) 394 final. Brussels: European Commission.
European Environment Agency (2005). Environmental Policy Integration in Europe: State of Play and an Evaluation Framework. Copenhagen: EEA.
European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2003). Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003 Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community and Amending Council Directive 96/61/EC.
Fiorino, D. (2001). ‘Environmental policy as learning: A new view of an old landscape’, Public Administration Review 61(3): 322–334.
Hajer, M. (2003). ‘Policy without polity? Policy analysis and the institutional void’, Policy Sciences 36: 175–195.
Hall, P. (1993). ‘Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: The case of economic policymaking in Britain’, Comparative Politics 25: 275–296.
Heclo, H. (1974). Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Huber, G. P. (1991). ‘Organizational learning: The contributing processes and the literatures’, Organizational Science 2(1): 88–115.
Ingenjörsvetenskapsakademin (2003). Energiframsyn Sverige i Europa: Energin – mot en ny era! (Energy foresight Sweden in Europe: Energy – Towards a New Era!). Stockholm: IVA.
Institutet för Tillväxtpolitiska Studier (2004). Basindustrin och Kyoto: Effekter på Konkurrenskraften av Handeln med Utsläppsrätter (Basic Materials Industry and Kyoto: Impacts on Competitiveness from Emissions Trading. Stockholm: ITPS.
J and W (2002). Underlag för Prövningen av Stängningen av den andra Kärnkraftsreaktorn vid Barsebäck (Factual Basis for Considering the Closure of the Second Reactor at Barsebäck). Stockholm: Näringsdepartementet.
Jachtenfuchs, M. (1997). International Policy-making as a Learning Process? Aldershot: Avebury.
Jahn, D. (1998). ‘Environmental performance and policy regimes: Explaining variations in 18 OECD countries’, Policy Sciences 31: 107–131.
Jasanoff, S. (1997). Social Learning in the Risk Society. Committee for Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies. Cambridge: Cornell University.
Jänicke, M. and H. Weidner (1997). ‘Summary’, in M. Jänicke and H. Weidner, eds., National Environmental Policies: A Comparative Study of Capacity Building. Berlin: Springer, pp. 299–313.
Kaijser, A. (2001). ‘From tile stoves to nuclear plants – the history of Swedish energy systems’, in S. Silveira ed., Building Sustainable Energy Systems: Swedish Experiences. Stockholm: Svensk Byggtjänst, pp. 57–93.
Kaijser, A., A. Mogren and P. Steen (1988). Att Ändra Riktning: Energipolitik och Ny Teknik (Changing Direction: Energy Policy and New Technology). Stockholm: National Energy Administration.
Klimatdelegationen (1995). Jordens Klimat Förändras: en Analys av Hotbild och Globala Åtgärdsstrategier (Earth's Climate is Changing: An Analysis of Threats and Global Mitigation Strategies). Stockholm: Naturvårdsverket.
Klimatdelegationen (1998). Om 50 år (In 50 Years). Stockholm.
Korfmacher, K. (1998). ‘Water quality modelling for environmental management’, Policy Sciences 35–54.
Kågesson, P. (2003). Debattartikel DN 17 februari 2003. Dagens Nyheter.
Leijonhufvud, S. (1994). Parentes? En Historia om Svensk Kärnkraft (Parenthesis? A Story About Swedish Nuclear Power). Västerås: ABB Atom.
Leiserowitz, A., R. W. Kates and T. Parris (2005). ‘Do global attitudes and behaviors support sustainable development?’, Environment 47(9): 22–38.
Lenschow, A., ed., (2002). Environmental Policy Integration: Greening Sectoral Policies in Europe. London: Earthscan.
Lundqvist, L. (2001). ‘Implementation from above: The ecology of power in Sweden's environmental governance’, Governance 14(3): 319–337.
Löfstedt, R. (2001). ‘Playing politics with energy policy: The phase-out of nuclear power in Sweden’, Environment 43: 20–33.
Lönnroth, M., T. B. Johansson and P. Steen (1978). Sol eller Uran: Att Välja Energiframtid (Sun or uranium: Choosing Energy Future). Stockholm: Liber.
Molander, P., J.-E. Nilsson and A. Schick (2002). Does Anyone Govern? The Relationship between the Government Office and the Agencies in Sweden. Stockholm: SNS.
Naturvårdsverket (2004). Miljömålen – Allas Vårt Ansvar! (Environmental Objectives: Our Common Responsibility). Stockholm: Naturvårdsverket.
Naturvårdsverket and Energimyndigheten (2004). Sveriges Klimatstrategi – ett Underlag till Utvärderingen av det Svenska Klimatarbetet (Sweden's Climate Strategy – A Basis for the Evaluation of the Swedish Climate Efforts). Stockholm: Naturvårdsverket and Energimyndigheten.
Nilsson, M. (2005). ‘Learning, frames and environmental policy integration: The case of Swedish energy policy’, Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 23: 207–226.
OECD (1997). Regulatory Impact Analysis: Best Practices in OECD Countries. Paris: Organisation for economic cooperation and development.
Peters, B. G. (1998). ‘Managing horizontal government: The politics of coordination’, Public Administration 76: 295–311.
Regeringens proposition (1988a). 1987/88:85. Miljöpolitiken inför 1990-talet (Environmental Policy for the 1990s). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (1988b). 1987/88:90. Energipolitik inför 1990-talet (Energy Policy for the 1990s). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (1991). 1990/91:88. Om Energipolitiken (On Energy Policy). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (1993). 1992/93:179. Klimatpolitisk Proposition (Climate Policy Bill). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (1997). 1996/97:84. En Uthållig Energiförsörjning (A Sustainable Energy Supply). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (2000). 2000/01:130. Svenska Miljömål – Delmål och Åtgärdsstrategier (Swedish Environmental Objectives: Targets and Strategies). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (2002a). 2001/02:55. Sveriges Klimatstrategi (Sweden's Climate Strategy). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (2002b). 2001/02:143. Samverkan för en Trygg, Effektiv och Miljövänlig Energiförsörjning (Co-operation for Safe, Efficient and Environmentally Friendly Energy Supply). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (2003). 2002/03:40. Elcertifikat för att Främja Förnybara Energikällor (Electricity Certificates to Promote Renewable Energy Sources). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringens proposition (2004). 2003/04:132 Handel med Utsläppsrätter (Trade with Emissions Rights). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Regeringskansliet (1991). Ds 1991:4. Energiutredningar åren 1989 och 1990: Sammanfattning av Rapporter och Remissinstansernas Synpunkter (Energy Assessments 1989 and 1990: Summary of Reports and Consultation Viewpoints). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Rotmans, J. (1998). ‘Methods for IA. The challenges and opportunities ahead’, Environmental Modeling and Assessment 3: 155–179.
Sabatier, P. (1988). ‘An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy-oriented learning therein’, Policy Sciences 21: 129–168.
Sabatier, P. (1993). ‘Policy change over a decade or more’, in P. Sabatier and H. Jenkins-Smith, eds., Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 13–40.
Scharpf, F. W. (1989). ‘Decision rules, decision styles and policy choices’, Journal of Theoretical Politics 1(2): 149–176.
Schön, D. and M. Rein (1994). Frame Reflection: Towards the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies. New York: Basic Books.
Shulock, N. (1999). ‘The paradox of policy analysis: If it is not used, why do we produce so much of it?’, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 18(2): 226–244.
Sjöberg, K. (2004). Luftkvalitet i Tätorter (Air Quality in Cities). Stockholm: IVL.
Socialdemokraterna (1990). Energipolitiken: Problem och Möjligheter (Energy Policy: Problems and Opportunities). Stockholm: Sveriges Socialdemokratiska Arbetareparti.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (1990). SOU 1990:21. Den Elintensiva Industrin under Kärnkraftsavvecklingen (Electricity-intensive Industry Under Nuclear Phase-out). Betänkande från EL90. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (1995). SOU 1995:139–140. Omställning av Energisystemet (Restructuring the Energy System). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2000a). SOU 2000:23. Förslag till Svensk Klimatstrategi (Proposals for a Swedish Climate Strategy). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2000b). SOU 2000:52. Framtidens Miljö – Allas Vårt Ansvar (The Future Environment – Our Common Responsibility). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2002). SOU 2002:7 Konkurrensen på Elmarknaden (The Competition on the Electricity Market). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2003a). SOU 2003:38. Svåra Skatter (Difficult Taxes). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2003b). SOU 2003:60 Handla för Bättre Klimat (Trade for a Better Climate). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2003c). SOU 2003:80. EFUD - en Del i Omställningen av Energisystemet (EFUD – One Part of the Restructuring of the Energy System). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2003d). SOU 2003:120. Handla för Bättre Klimat – Tillstånd och Tilldelningar, m.m. Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2003e). SOU 2003:123 Ansvarskommitténs Delbetänkande Utvecklingskraft för Hållbar Välfärd (Progress Report from the Accountability Committee). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Statens Offentliga Utredningar (2004). SOU 2004:62 Handla för Bättre klimat–Handel med Utsläppsrätter 2005–2007 m.m (Trade for Better Climate – Trade with Emissions Permits 2005–2007 etc). Stockholm: Regeringskansliet.
Steen, P., T. B. Johansson, R. Fredriksson, and E. Bogren (1978). Energi – Till Vad och Hur Mycket? (Energy – for What and How Much?). Stockholm: Liber.
Svenning, O. (2005). Göran Persson och Hans Värld (Göran Persson and his World). Stockholm: Norstedts.
Södersten, B. ed. (1991). Framtid med Kärnkraft (Future with Nuclear Power). Stockholm: SNS Förlag.
Uhrwing, M. (2001). Tillträde till Maktens rum – Intresseorganisationer och Miljöpolitiskt Beslutsfattande (Access to the Rooms of Power – Interest Organizations and Decision Making in Environmental Politics). Hedemora: Gidlunds förlag.
Wildavsky, A. B. (1987). Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. New Brunswick: Transaction.
Virgin, I. (1998). LNB debattartikel 980701 Barsebäckskarusellen Snurrar Vidare (The Barsebäck Carusel Keeps on Going Around). Stockholm: Liberala Nyhetsbyrån.
Vägverket (2005). Klimatstrategi för Vägtransportsektorn (Climate Strategy for the Road Transpor Sector). Borlänge: Vägverket.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nilsson, M. The Role of Assessments and Institutions for Policy Learning: A Study on Swedish Climate and Nuclear Policy Formation. Policy Sci 38, 225–249 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-006-9006-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-006-9006-7