Abstract
Observational astronomy of tidal disruption events (TDEs) began with the detection of X-ray flares from quiescent galaxies during the ROSAT all-sky survey of 1990–1991. The flares complied with theoretical expectations, having high peak luminosities (\(L_{\mathrm{x}}\) up to \(\ge 4\times 10^{44}~\text{erg/s}\)), a thermal spectrum with \(kT\sim \text{few} \times 10^{5}~\text{K}\), and a decline on timescales of months to years, consistent with a diminishing return of stellar debris to a black hole of mass \(10^{6\text{--}8}~M_{\odot }\). These measurements gave solid proof that the nuclei of quiescent galaxies are habitually populated by a super-massive black hole. Beginning in 2000, XMM-Newton, Chandra and Swift have discovered further TDEs which have been monitored closely at multiple wavelengths. A general picture has emerged of, initially near-Eddington accretion, powering outflows of highly-ionised material, giving way to a calmer sub-Eddington phase, where the flux decays monotonically, and finally a low accretion rate phase with a harder X-ray spectrum indicative of the formation of a disk corona. There are exceptions to this rule though which at the moment are not well understood. A few bright X-ray TDEs have been discovered in optical surveys but in general X-ray TDEs show little excess emission in the optical band, at least at times coincident with the X-ray flare. X-ray TDEs are powerful new probes of accretion physics down to the last stable orbit, revealing the conditions necessary for launching jets and winds. Finally we see that evidence is mounting for nuclear and non-nuclear intermediate mass black holes based on TDE flares which are relatively hot and/or fast.
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Change history
02 February 2021
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00759-7
Notes
In this chapter we include publications written up until mid-2019.
Note, that broad and narrow optical emission lines can also be temporarily excited by the TDE itself (e.g. Komossa et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2012). However, these lines differ from classical NLRs and can be distinguished if there is more than one post-flare optical spectrum, since they are not permanent but will change and fade away quickly.
This luminosity is even higher, if a powerlaw model is fit, and if there is absorption from the event’s host galaxy.
Note that the classification of IGR J12580+0134 as a TDE has been questioned based on its WISE colours, pre-flare data and hardness ratio evolution (see A.17 of Auchettl et al. 2017).
Although Irwin et al. (2015) make a case for the 2–10 keV emission coming from the inverse Compton component of the jet in IGR J12580+0134.
Note the highly reddened, absorbed host galaxy of this event.
Here the viscous timescale is defined as the time it takes for material to accrete onto a black hole, and depends on the height and radius of the disk and the orbital period (Guillochon and Ramirez-Ruiz 2015).
An alternative explanation was given by van Velzen et al. (2019a) who suggested that the properties of these sources are not a result of reprocessing but are due to a viscously spreading, unobscured accretion disk. This work was extended into the X-ray regime in Jonker et al. (2019), who infer the existence of a long-lived accretion disk to explain the relatively high late-time X-ray luminosity of three optically-selected TDEs.
Here \(L_{\mathrm{iso}}\) is defined as the mean isotropic luminosity, after correcting for beaming, emitted by the event in the interval where the light curve contains between 5% and 95% of the total emitted luminosity (see Auchettl et al. 2017 and references therein for an explanation of the derivation of isotropic luminosity).
Note that the cluster survey of (Maksym et al. 2010) uses a self-consistent set of assumptions which are not affected by this change.
All the surveys use very strong TDE candidates when calculating the rates except for Khabibullin and Sazonov (2014) which identified one very likely TDE (RBS 1032) and two possible TDEs in their sample. If only RBS 1032 had been adopted here then the survey TDE rates with common assumptions would agree to a factor \(\approx 3\).
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Acknowledgements
Dacheng Lin and Erin Kara are warmly thanked for providing updated figures of their work. RS would like to thank Peter Maksym for early help with the rates calculation. Sjoert Van Velzen and an anonymous second referee are thanked for comments and suggestions which improved the manuscript.
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The Tidal Disruption of Stars by Massive Black Holes
Edited by Peter G. Jonker, Sterl Phinney, Elena Maria Rossi, Sjoert van Velzen, Iair Arcavi and Maurizio Falanga
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Saxton, R., Komossa, S., Auchettl, K. et al. X-Ray Properties of TDEs. Space Sci Rev 216, 85 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00708-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00708-4