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Formation of Venus, Earth and Mars: Constrained by Isotopes

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Abstract

Here we discuss the current state of knowledge of terrestrial planet formation from the aspects of different planet formation models and isotopic data from 182Hf-182W, U-Pb, lithophile-siderophile elements, 48Ca/44Ca isotope samples from planetary building blocks, recent reproduction attempts from 36Ar/38Ar, 20Ne/22Ne, 36Ar/22Ne isotope ratios in Venus’ and Earth’s atmospheres, the expected solar 3He abundance in Earth’s deep mantle and Earth’s D/H sea water ratios that shed light on the accretion time of the early protoplanets. Accretion scenarios that can explain the different isotope ratios, including a Moon-forming event ca. 50 Myr after the formation of the Solar System, support the theory that the bulk of Earth’s mass (≥80%) most likely accreted within 10–30 Myr. From a combined analysis of the before mentioned isotopes, one finds that proto-Earth accreted most likely a mass of 0.5–0.6 \(M\)Earth within the first ≈3–4.5 Myr, the approximate lifetime of the protoplanetary disk. For Venus, the available atmospheric noble gas data are too uncertain for constraining the planet’s accretion scenario accurately. However, from the available imprecise Ar and Ne isotope measurements, one finds that proto-Venus could have grown to a mass of up to 0.85–1.0 \(M\)Venus before the disk dissipated. Classical terrestrial planet formation models have struggled to grow large planetary embryos, or even cores of giant planets, quickly from the tiniest materials within the typical lifetime of protoplanetary disks. Pebble accretion could solve this long-standing time scale controversy. Pebble accretion and streaming instabilities produce large planetesimals that grow into Mars-sized and larger planetary embryos during this early accretion phase. The later stage of accretion can be explained well with the Grand-Tack model as well as the annulus and depleted disk models. The relative roles of pebble accretion and planetesimal accretion/giant impacts are poorly understood and should be investigated with N-body simulations that include pebbles and multiple protoplanets. To summarise, different isotopic dating methods and the latest terrestrial planet formation models indicate that the accretion process from dust settling, planetesimal formation, and growth to large planetary embryos and protoplanets is a fast process that occurred to a great extent in the Solar System within the lifetime of the protoplanetary disk.

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Acknowledgements

R. B. acknowledges financial assistance from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Shingakujutsu Kobo (JP19H05071). A.J. acknowledges funding from the European Research Foundation (ERC Consolidator Grant 724687-PLANETESYS), the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation (Wallenberg Academy Fellow Grant 2017.0287) and the Swedish Research Council (Project Grant 2018-04867). H.L. and M.S. acknowledge the support of Europlanet 2020 RI. Europlanet 2020 RI has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 654208. We thank Nathan Kaib and Matt Clement for information regarding their ‘Early instability’ model. H. L. and M. S. acknowledge support from the FWF NFN subproject S11607-N16. M. L. acknowledge support of the Austrian FWF projects P27256-N27 and P30949-N36. The authors also thank the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) in Bern, Switzerland for the support. Finally, we thank the referee S. B. Jacobsen and an anonymous referee for their very helpful comments and suggestions that helped to improve this review article.

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  1. Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Schmiedlstr. 6, 8042, Graz, Austria

    Helmut Lammer & Manuel Scherf

  2. Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan

    Ramon Brasser

  3. Lund Observatory, Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Lund University, Box 43, 22100, Lund, Sweden

    Anders Johansen

  4. Institute of Physics/IGAM, University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 5/II, 8010, Graz, Austria

    Martin Leitzinger

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Reading Terrestrial Planet Evolution in Isotopes and Element Measurements

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Lammer, H., Brasser, R., Johansen, A. et al. Formation of Venus, Earth and Mars: Constrained by Isotopes. Space Sci Rev 217, 7 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00778-4

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