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Mechanisms and Kinetics of Environmentally Assisted Cracking: Current Status, Issues, and Suggestions for Further Work

  • Symposium: Environmental Damage in Structural Materials under Static/Dynamic Loads at Ambient Temperature
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Abstract

Mechanisms and kinetics of metal-induced embrittlement, hydrogen-embrittlement, and stress-corrosion cracking are discussed, and long-standing controversies are addressed by reviewing critical observations. Recommendations are also made regarding further work (including repetition of previous work using more advanced measurement and characterisation techniques) that should be carried out in order to resolve some of the contentious issues. The evidence to date suggests that adsorption-based mechanisms, involving weakening of substrate interatomic bonds so that dislocation emission or decohesion is facilitated, accounts for embrittlement in many systems. Embrittling adsorbed species include some metal atoms, hydrogen, and complex ions produced by de-alloying. Other viable mechanisms of embrittlement include those based on (1) dissolution of anodic grain-boundary regions, and (2) decohesion at grain boundaries owing to segregated hydrogen and impurities. The hydrogen-enhanced localised-plasticity mechanism, based on solute hydrogen facilitating dislocation activity in the plastic zone ahead of cracks, makes a contribution in some cases, but is relatively unimportant compared with these other mechanisms for most fracture modes. The film-induced cleavage mechanism, proposed especially for stress-corrosion cracking in systems involving de-alloying at crack tips, is questionable on numerous grounds, and is probably not viable. Rate-controlling processes for environmentally assisted cracking are not well established, except for solid-metal induced embrittlement where surface self-diffusion of embrittling atoms to crack tips controls cracking kinetics. In some systems, adsorption kinetics are probably rate-controlling for liquid-metal embrittlement, hydrogen-environment embrittlement, and stress-corrosion cracking. In other cases, rate-controlling processes could include the rate of anodic or cathodic reactions at and behind crack tips (responsible for producing embrittling species such as hydrogen) and rates of hydrogen diffusion ahead of cracks.

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Notes

  1. These effects of temperature are also opposite to what one would expect if dissolution was involved in crack growth. Increasing temperature decreases the severity of LME (measured from elongations or reductions of area after tensile tests) in other materials,[8–10] but the data are difficult to interpret since both crack initiation and growth are involved. For LME involving grain-boundary diffusion, increasing temperature increases the kinetics of embrittlement as would be expected.

  2. In the original paper,[58] the dimples were described as ‘mounds’, but it is now accepted that the features were dimples[80] after it was pointed out that this was probably the case.[81] Fine dislocation cells were observed beneath the fracture surfaces in the study,[58] and voids could well have been nucleated at dislocation-cell boundaries, as has been observed by in situ TEM studies in the absence of hydrogen.[79] It was originally suggested that decohesion was involved[58] but, given that it is now accepted that fracture surfaces were dimpled, it seems more likely that AIDE predominates.[81]

  3. Recent ultra-high resolution SEM of mating areas of opposite fracture surfaces of a steel confirms that cleavage-like facets are dimpled on a nanoscale (15–20 nm diameter and 1–5 nm depth). See Ref. [82].

  4. Linear extrapolation of diffusion data for Ni appears to be reasonable down to at least 123 K (−150 °C), based on magnetic-relaxation measurements of jump frequencies at 173 K to 123 K (−100 °C to −150 °C), and comparisons with jump frequencies calculated from diffusion measurements at high temperatures.[88] Linear extrapolation to even lower temperatures is also probably valid since quantum-tunnelling effects, leading to diffusion faster than predicted from linear extrapolation of high-temperature diffusion data, appear not to be significant for fcc metals (unlike bcc metals). The difference between fcc and bcc metals probably occurs due to the greater distance (by a factor of about two) between the octahedral interstitial sites of hydrogen in fcc metals and the tetrahedral interstitial sites of hydrogen in bcc metals.[88]

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    S. P. Lynch (Principal Research Scientist)

  2. ARC Centre of Excellence for Light Metals, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

    S. P. Lynch (Principal Research Scientist)

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  1. S. P. Lynch
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Correspondence to S. P. Lynch.

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Manuscript submitted December 15, 2011.

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Lynch, S.P. Mechanisms and Kinetics of Environmentally Assisted Cracking: Current Status, Issues, and Suggestions for Further Work. Metall Mater Trans A 44, 1209–1229 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-012-1359-2

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