Abstract
Professional jockeys are unique amongst weight-making athletes given that they face the requirement to make weight daily. Furthermore, unlike other weight-limited sports, jockeys who have engaged in rapid weight loss cannot fully rehydrate prior to competition because post-race weight must not be more than 1 kg different to their pre-race weight. As such, jockeys have reported a variety of acute and chronic methods to make weight that include sporadic eating, caloric restriction, diuretics, laxatives, vomiting and fluid restriction as well as regular use of sweat suits and saunas. Typical daily energy intake is reported to be 6.5–8.0 MJ (carbohydrate 3 g kg−1 body weight, fat 1 g kg−1 body weight, protein 1 g kg−1 body weight) and jockeys also exhibit micronutrient deficiencies that include vitamin D and calcium. Accordingly, the combination of low macronutrient, micronutrient and fluid intake results in poor bone health and abnormal mood profiles and can also impair simulated riding performance. Although the energy cost of real-world training and racing is unknown, energy expenditure during simulated race riding and total daily energy expenditure was 0.20 and 11.0 MJ, respectively. Such estimates of energy expenditure are considerably lower than that of other sports and suggest that conventional sports nutrition guidelines may not be applicable to the elite jockey. Furthermore, the use of daily diets that emphasise a high-protein and reduced carbohydrate intake (in the form of six small daily meals) in combination with structured exercise has also proven effective in reducing body mass and maintaining target racing weight. In this regard, available data suggest the need for those organisations responsible for jockey welfare to implement widespread educational programmes to assist in improving both the physical and mental well-being of professional jockeys. Given the high occupational risks associated with race riding (e.g. falls and bone fractures), future research should specifically target strategies to improve bone health through the use of structured weight-bearing exercise and correcting nutritional deficiencies.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Georgian index. Carriages and their parts. http://www.georgianindex.net/horse_and_carriage/carriages.html. Accessed 12 Dec 2012.
Steckel R. Heights and human welfare: developments and new directions. Explor Econ Hist. 2009;46:1–23.
Caulfield MJ, Karageorghis CI. Psychological effects of rapid weight loss and attitudes towards eating among professional jockeys. J Sports Sci. 2008;26(9):877–83.
Morton JP, Robertson C, Sutton L, et al. Making the weight: a case-study from professional boxing. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20(1):80–5.
Warrington G, Dolan E, McGoldrick A, et al. Chronic weight control impacts on physiological function and bone health in elite jockeys. J Sports Sci. 2009;27(6):543–50.
Cotugna N, Snider OS, Windish J. Nutrition assessment of horse-racing athletes. J Comm Health. 2011;36(2):261–4.
Leydon MA, Wall C. New Zealand jockeys’ dietary habits and their potential impact on health. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12(2):220–37.
Moore JM, Timperio AF, Crawford DA, et al. Weight management and weight loss strategies of professional jockeys. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12(1):1–13.
Wilson G, Fraser WD, Sharma A, et al. Markers of bone health, renal function, liver function, anthropometry and perception of mood: a comparison between Flat & National Hunt jockeys. Int J Sports Med. 2013;34(5):453–9.
Dolan E, McGoldrick A, Davenport C, et al. An altered hormonal profile and elevated rate of bone loss are associated with low bone mass in professional horse-racing jockeys. J Bone Miner Metab. 2012;30(5):534–42.
Labadarios D, Kotze J, Momberg D, et al. Jockeys and their practices in South Africa. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1993;71:97–114.
Klipstein-Grobusch K, Georg T, Boeing H. Interviewer variability in anthropometric measurements and estimates of body composition. Int J Epidemiol. 1997;26(Suppl 1):S174–80.
Sutton L, Scott M, Wallace J, et al. Body composition of English Premier League soccer players: influence of playing position, international status, and ethnicity. J Sports Sci. 2009;27(10):1019–26.
Wilson G, Chester N, Eubank M, et al. An alternate dietary strategy to make weight improves mood, decreases body fat and removes the necessity for dehydration: a case-study from a professional jockey. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2012;22(3):225-31.
Wilson G, Sparks SA, Drust B, et al. Assessment of energy expenditure in elite jockeys during simulated race-riding and a working day: implications for making weight. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2013;38(4):415–20.
Dolan E, O’Connor H, McGoldrick A, et al. Nutritional, lifestyle, and weight control practices of professional jockeys. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(8):791–9.
Wilson G, Hawken MB, Poole I, et al. Rapid weight-loss impairs simulated riding performance and strength in jockeys: implications for making-weight. J Sports Sci. 2013;32(4):383–91.
Waldron-Lynch F, Murray BF, Brady JJ, et al. High bone turnover in Irish professional jockeys. Osteoporos Int. 2010;21(3):521–5.
Rodriguez NR, Di Marco NM, Langley S. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(3):709–31.
Greene DA, Naughton GA, Jander CB, et al. Bone health of apprentice jockeys using peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Int J Sports Med. 2013;34(8):688–94.
Burke LM, Hawley JA, Wong SH, et al. Carbohydrates for training and competition. J Sports Sci. 2011;8:1–11.
Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Vuksan V, et al. Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(14):929–34.
Poslusna K, Ruprich J, de Vries JH, et al. Misreporting of energy and micronutrient intake estimated by food records and 24 hour recalls, control and adjustment methods in practice. Br J Nutr. 2009;101(2):S73–85.
Bingham S. The dietary assessment of individuals; methods, accuracy, new techniques and recommendations. Nutr Abstr Rev Ser Hum Exp. 1987;57:705–42.
King MB, Mezey G. Eating behaviour of male racing jockeys. Psychol Med. 1987;17(1):249–53.
Smith M, Dyson R, Hale T, et al. The effects of restricted energy and fluid intake on simulated amateur boxing performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001;11(2):238–47.
Lindeman AK. Self-esteem: its application to eating disorders and athletes. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994;4(3):237–52.
Coomber K, King RM. A longitudinal examination of burden and psychological distress in carers of people with an eating disorder. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(1):163–71.
Miyata G, Meguid MM, Fetissov SO, et al. Nicotine’s effect on hypothalamic neurotransmitters and appetite regulation. Surgery. 1999;126(2):255–63.
Jo YH, Talmage DA, Role LW. Nicotinic receptor-mediated effects on appetite and food intake. J Neurobiol. 2002;53(4):618–32.
Turner M, McCrory P, Halley W. Injuries in professional horseracing in Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland during 1992–2000. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36(6):403–9.
Loucks AB, Kiens B, Wright HH. Energy availability in athletes. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(Suppl 1):S7–15.
Loucks AB. Energy balance and body composition in sports and exercise. J Sports Sci. 2004;22(1):1–14.
Vogt S, Heinrich L, Schumacher YO, et al. Energy intake and energy expenditure of elite cyclists during preseason training. Int J Sports Med. 2005;26(8):701–6.
Nagle KB, Brooks MA. A systematic review of bone health in cyclists. Sports Health. 2011;3(3):235–43.
St George IM, Williams S, Silva PA. Body size and the menarche: the Dunedin Study. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 1994;15(7):573-6.
Warren MP, Brooks-Gunn J, Hamilton LH, et al. Scoliosis and fractures in young ballet dancers: relation to delayed menarche and secondary amenorrhea. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(21):1348–53.
Dolan E, Crabtree N, McGoldrick A, et al. Weight regulation and bone mass: a comparison between professional jockeys, elite amateur boxers, and age, gender and BMI matched controls. J Bone Miner Metab. 2011;30(2):164–70.
Andreoli A, Monteleone M, Van Loan M, et al. Effects of different sports on bone density and muscle mass in highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(4):507–11.
Dolan E, Cullen S, McGoldrick A, et al. The impact of “making-weight” on physiological and cognitive processes in elite jockeys. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2013;23(4):399–408.
Misra M, Miller KK, Bjornson J, et al. Alterations in growth hormone secretory dynamics in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa and effects on bone metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(12):5615–23.
Solomon AM, Bouloux PM. Modifying muscle mass: the endocrine perspective. J Endocrinol. 2006;191(2):349–60.
Garner DM, Garfinkel PE. The eating attitudes test: an index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med. 1979;9(2):273–9.
Terry PC, Lane AM, Lane HJ, et al. Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. J Sports Sci. 1999;17(11):861–72.
Lane AM, Terry PC, Beedie CJ, et al. Mood and performance: test of a conceptual model with a focus on depressed mood. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2001;2(3):157–72.
Hitchens P, Blizzard L, Jones G, et al. Are physiological attributes of jockeys predictors of falls? A pilot study. BMJ Open. 2011;1(1):e000142.
Raglin JS, Morgan WP, O’Connor PJ. Changes in mood states during training in female and male college swimmers. Int J Sports Med. 1991;12(6):585–9.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Bill Greenwood of Racewood Horse Simulators, Tarporley, Cheshire for providing the mechanical horse used in many of the authors’ studies, Niall Hannity, Julie Williams, Richard Hale and the ‘Hallowed Turf’ partnership for financial assistance with this study. The authors have no potential conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wilson, G., Drust, B., Morton, J.P. et al. Weight-Making Strategies in Professional Jockeys: Implications for Physical and Mental Health and Well-Being. Sports Med 44, 785–796 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0169-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0169-7