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Pediatric Cancers

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Nuclear Oncology

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Abstract

Pediatric cancers are defined as cancers occurring before the age of 15 years and account for only 2% of all cancers. Intracranial tumors are the most common solid neoplasms in children. Although [18F]FDG uptake is associated with more malignant and aggressive tumor types, [18F]FDG-PET is not routinely used for the clinical management of pediatric brain tumors. PET/MR coregistration/image fusion improves localization of the lesion. [18F]FDG-PET is also helpful to differentiate indolent and active components of the lesion, to improve the diagnostic yield of stereotactic biopsies and the accuracy of the radiosurgical dosimetry planning.

Lymphomas account for 10–15% of all childhood malignancies and are the third most common cause of cancer. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is more frequent.

Staging of Hodgkin’s lymphoma is performed according to the Cotswold revision of the Ann Arbor classification. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in childhood is significantly different from adults. The predominant subtypes are Burkitt’s lymphoma, large B-cell lymphoma, and primary mediastinal B-cell lymphomas, followed by lymphoblastic lymphoma and anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Most cases are extensive at diagnosis corresponding to stages 3 or 4 of the St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital classification (Murphy staging). Contrast-enhanced diagnostic CT (ce-CT) remains mandatory at least at diagnosis (performed either simultaneously with [18F]FDG PET by using hybrid PET/CT scanners or separately). Diagnostic CT reliably detects enlarged lymph nodes, and contrast media are required to accurately distinguish lymphadenopathy. Diagnostic CT also allows detailed evaluation of pulmonary parenchyma, pleura, and pericardium. Ultrasonography has a definite role in both initial evaluation and follow-up of superficial lymph nodes and is an effective method to detect testicular infiltration and to explore liver and spleen. Chest radiography remains useful in HL to classify disease as “bulky” or “nonbulky.” MRI is superior to ce-CT for evaluation of bone marrow and central nervous system.

67Ga-citrate scintigraphy and bone scintigraphy have been replaced by [18F]FDG-PET/CT, which

depicts nodal and extranodal disease as well as focal bone marrow disease. Early response assessment can be evaluated by interim PET. When interim PET is negative, no other examination needs to be performed at the end of therapy in the absence of clinical signs. Systematic [18F]FDG-PET is not indicated during follow-up.

In non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, [18F]FDG avidity is high for Burkitt’s lymphoma, large B-cell lymphoma, lymphoblastic lymphoma, and anaplastic large-cell lymphoma.

The main indications for [18F]FDG-PET in children with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma are inconclusive. However, [18F]FDG-PET appears to be a useful tool for characterization of residual masses, as no reliable CT or MRI criteria are available for distinguishing residual disease from fibrosis or necrosis.

Wilms’ tumor is the most common renal malignancy in childhood. The diagnostic workup includes a CT or MRI scan of the abdomen and pelvis, lymph nodes, and intra-abdominal or pelvic tumor deposits. A Doppler ultrasound is recommended to evaluate if there is a tumor thrombus in the renal vein and inferior vena cava. For detection of bilateral disease and the assessment of nephroblastomatosis representing premalignant lesions, MRI is the imaging modality of choice. 123I-MIBG scintigraphy can be very helpful for the differentiation of neuroblastoma from Wilms’ tumor. There is no major role for [18F]FDG-PET/CT in these patients.

Neuroblastoma accounts about 8% of pediatric malignancies and is responsible for 15% of cancer deaths in children. It arises from the neural crest cells, and the tumor is usually situated in the adrenal gland or anywhere else along the sympathetic nervous system chain. Staging is crucial in order to choose the appropriate treatment. Imaging of neuroblastoma consists of sonography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and 123I-MIBG scintigraphy.123I-MIBG is sensitive and specific for the detection of bone involvement. [18F]FDG-PET is less sensitive than 123I-MIBG scintigraphy in neuroblastoma patients.

Sarcomas are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms with different tumor biology, malignancy, and therapeutic options. The two major groups of primary bone tumors in children and adolescents are osteosarcomas and the Ewing family of tumors.

As regards soft-tissue sarcomas, the most common histologic entities in children and adolescents are rhabdomyosarcoma, extraosseous Ewing sarcoma and peripheral neuroectodermal tumor, synovial sarcoma, neurofibrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and leiomyosarcoma. Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a proliferation of Langerhans-type histiocytes. Despite its clonal origin, there is no definitive proof of malignancy. Primary bone tumors are best classified using a conventional planar x-ray. CT and MRI supply further information on tumor localization and extension. Bone scintigraphy is very sensitive in the detection of osseous metastases of osteosarcoma, and even soft-tissue metastases are often visible on the bone scan.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    1.Tricyclic antidepressants and related drugs—should be avoided for 6 weeks prior to the study:

    (a) Amitriptyline and derivatives (Elavil, Endep, Etrafon, Triavil, Amitril, Emitrip, Enovil)

    (b) Amoxapine (Asendin)

    (c) Loxapin

    (d) Doxepin (Adapin, Sinequan)

    (e) Imipramine and derivatives (Tofranil, Imavate, Janimine, Presamine, SK-Pramine, Tipramine).

    2.Antihypertensives—should avoid for 2 weeks prior to the study:

    (a) Labetalol (Normodyne, Trandate)

    (b) Calcium channel blockers

    (c) Reserpine (Serpasil, Sandril).

    3.Sympathetic amines—should be avoided for 2 weeks prior to the study:

    (a) Pseudoephedrine (Halofed, Sudafed, Sudrin, others)

    (b) Phenylpropalamine HCL (Propagest, Sucrets Cold Decongestant, Entex, others)

    (c) Phenylephrine HCL (Neo-Synephrine, Alconefrin, Rhinail, others)

    (d) Ephedrine

    4.Cocaine—should be avoided at all times and for 2 weeks prior to the study.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nuclear Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Ziemssenstr. 1, Munich, 80336, Germany

    Thomas Pfluger MD

  2. Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Stadtspital Waid, Tièchestrasse, 99, 8037, Zurich, Switzerland

    Giampiero Giovacchini MD, PhD

  3. Nuclear Medicine Department, S. Andrea Hospital, Via Vittorio Veneto, 197, I-19124, La Spezia, Italy

    Andrea Ciarmiello MD

  4. Department of Nuclear Medicine, Tenon Hospital, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Pierre et Marie Curie University, 4 Rue de la Chine, Paris, 75020, France

    Françoise Montravers MD, PhD

  5. Department of Radiology, Armand-Trousseau Hopitaux Universitaires Est Parisien, 26, avenue du Docteur Arnold-Netter, Paris, France

    Hubert Ducou Le Pointe MD

  6. Department of Pediatrics, Pierre et Marie Curie University Paris VI, Paris, France

    Judith Landman-Parker

  7. Pediatric Hematology Oncology, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, 26, avenue du Dr Arnold Netter, Paris, Cedex 12, 75571, France

    Judith Landman-Parker

  8. Section of Nuclear Medicine, MR- and PET/CT Centre Bremen, St.-Juergen-Str. 1, Bremen, 28177, Germany

    Christiane Franzius MD

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Correspondence to Thomas Pfluger MD .

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  1. Dept. Radiology, Div. Nuclear Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, York Ave. 1275, New York, 10021, New York, USA

    H. William Strauss

  2. Centro Regionale di Medicina Nucleare, Universita di Pisa, Via Roma 67, Pisa, 56100, Italy

    Giuliano Mariani

  3. Centro Regionale di Medicina Nucleare, Universita di Pisa, Via Roma 67, Pisa, 56100, Italy

    Duccio Volterrani

  4. Cancer Center, Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering, York Ave. 1275, New York, 10021, New York, USA

    Steven M. Larson

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Pfluger, T. et al. (2013). Pediatric Cancers. In: Strauss, H., Mariani, G., Volterrani, D., Larson, S. (eds) Nuclear Oncology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-48894-3_25

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