Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Movement Disorders

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neurology

  • 3034 Accesses

Abstract

The current best evidence in Parkinson’s disease, Essential Tremor, and Primary Dystonia is reviewed. Clinical questions regarding the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of these disorders are presented. Using evidence-based approach, the literature is searched for the best-available evidence. These articles are critically appraised and an in-depth discussion is presented. Finally, Clinical Bottom Lines are highlighted summarizing the key clinical points for each disorder.

This chapter serves as a reference for medical students, residents, fellows, and practicing neurologists.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Forno LS. Neuropathology of Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1996;55(3):259–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55(3):181–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Hirtz D, Thurman DJ, Gwinn-Hardy K, Mohamed M, Chaudhuri AR, Zalutsky R. How common are the “common” neurologic disorders? Neurology. 2007;68(5):326–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Thacker EL, Ascherio A. Familial aggregation of Parkinson’s disease: a meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2008;23(8):1174–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Priyadarshi A, Khuder SA, Schaub EA, Shrivastava S. A meta-analysis of Parkinson’s disease and exposure to pesticides. Neurotoxicology. 2000;21(4):435–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Firestone JA, Smith-Weller T, Franklin G, Swanson P, Longstreth Jr WT, Checkoway H. Pesticides and risk of Parkinson disease: a population-based case-control study. Arch Neurol. 2005;62(1):91–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Lai BC, Marion SA, Teschke K, Tsui JK. Occupational and environmental risk factors for Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson Relat Disord. 2002;8(5):297–309.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Hernan MA, Takkouche B, Caamano-Isorna F, Gestal-Otero JJ. A meta-analysis of coffee drinking, cigarette smoking, and the risk of Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol. 2002;52(3):276–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. de Lau LM, Breteler MM. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 2006;5(6):525–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Allam MF, Campbell MJ, Hofman A, Del Castillo AS, Fernandez-Crehuet Navajas R. Smoking and Parkinson’s disease: systematic review of prospective studies. Mov Disord. 2004;19(6):614–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Ben-Shlomo Y, Lees AJ. The accuracy of diagnosis of parkinsonian syndromes in a specialist movement disorder service. Brain. 2002;125(Pt 4):861–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Suchowersky O, Reich S, Perlmutter J, Zesiewicz T, Gronseth G, Weiner WJ. Practice Parameter: Diagnosis and prognosis of new onset Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;66:968–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Lees AJ. Improved accuracy of clinical diagnosis of Lewy body Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 2001;57(8):1497–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Clarke CE, Davies P. Systematic review of acute levodopa and apomorphine challenge tests in the diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69(5):590–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. McKinnon JH, Demaerschalk BM, Caviness JN, Wellik KE, Adler CH, Wingerchuk DM. Sniffing out Parkinson disease: can olfactory testing differentiate parkinsonian disorders? Neurologist. 2007;13(6):382–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kwon KY, Choi CG, Kim JS, Lee MC, Chung SJ. Comparison of brain MRI and 18 F-FDG PET in the differential diagnosis of multiple system atrophy from Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2007;22(16):2352–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. von Lewinski F, Werner C, Jorn T, Mohr A, Sixel-Doring F, Trenkwalder C. T2*-weighted MRI in diagnosis of multiple system atrophy. A practical approach for clinicians. J Neurol. 2007;254(9):1184–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Nicoletti G, Lodi R, Condino F, et al. Apparent diffusion coefficient measurements of the middle cerebellar peduncle differentiate the Parkinson variant of MSA from Parkinson’s disease and progressive supranuclear palsy. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 10):2679–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Righini A, Antonini A, De Notaris R, et al. MR imaging of the superior profile of the midbrain: differential diagnosis between progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson disease. Am J Neuroradiol. 2004;25(6):927–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Quattrone A, Nicoletti G, Messina D, et al. MR imaging index for differentiation of progressive supranuclear palsy from Parkinson disease and the Parkinson variant of multiple system atrophy. Radiology. 2008;246(1):214–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Vlaar AM, van Kroonenburgh MJ, Kessels AG, Weber WE. Meta-analysis of the literature on diagnostic accuracy of SPECT in parkinsonian syndromes. BMC Neurol. 2007;7:27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Nagayama H, Hamamoto M, Ueda M, Nagashima J, Katayama Y. Reliability of MIBG myocardial scintigraphy in the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76(2):249–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Gaenslen A, Unmuth B, Godau J, et al. The specificity and sensitivity of transcranial ultrasound in the differential diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease: a prospective blinded study. Lancet Neurol. 2008;7(5):417–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Suchowersky O, Gronseth G, Perlmutter J, Reich S, Zesiewicz T, Weiner WJ. Practice Parameter: Neuroprotective strategies and alternative therapies for Parkinson disease (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;66:976–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Miyasaki JM, Martin W, Suchowersky O, Weiner WJ, Lang AE. Practice parameter: initiation of treatment for Parkinson’s disease: an evidence-based review: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2002;58(1):11–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Horstink M, Tolosa E, Bonuccelli U, et al. Review of the therapeutic management of Parkinson’s disease. Report of a joint task force of the European Federation of Neurological Societies and the Movement Disorder Society-European Section. Part I: early (uncomplicated) Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13(11):1170–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Crosby N, Deane KH, Clarke CE. Amantadine in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(1):CD003468.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Katzenschlager R, Sampaio C, Costa J, Lees A. Anticholinergics for symptomatic management of Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002(3):CD003735.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Macleod AD, Counsell CE, Ives N, Stowe R. Monoamine oxidase B inhibitors for early Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(3):CD004898.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Simonis G, Fuhrmann JT, Strasser RH. Meta-analysis of heart valve abnormalities in Parkinson’s disease patients treated with dopamine agonists. Mov Disord. 2007;22(13):1936–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Voon V, Hassan K, Zurowski M, et al. Prevalence of repetitive and reward-seeking behaviors in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2006;67(7):1254–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Weintraub D, Siderowf AD, Potenza MN, et al. Association of dopamine agonist use with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(7):969–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Stowe RL, Ives NJ, Clarke C, et al. Dopamine agonist therapy in early Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(2):CD006564.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Pahwa R, Factor SA, Lyons KE, et al. Practice Parameter: treatment of Parkinson disease with motor fluctuations and dyskinesia (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;66(7):983–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Fahn S, Oakes D, Shoulson I, et al. Levodopa and the progression of Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(24):2498–508.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Horstink M, Tolosa E, Bonuccelli U, et al. Review of the therapeutic management of Parkinson’s disease. Report of a joint task force of the European Federation of Neurological Societies (EFNS) and the Movement Disorder Society-European Section (MDS-ES). Part II: late (complicated) Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13(11):1186–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Deane KH, Spieker S, Clarke CE. Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors for levodopa-induced complications in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004(4):CD004554.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Rascol O. Rasagiline in the pharmacotherapy of Parkinson’s disease–a review. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2005;6(12):2061–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Rascol O, Brooks DJ, Melamed E, et al. Rasagiline as an adjunct to levodopa in patients with Parkinson’s disease and motor fluctuations (LARGO, Lasting effect in Adjunct therapy with Rasagiline Given Once daily, study): a randomised, double-blind, parallel-group trial. Lancet. 2005;365(9463):947–54.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Nyholm D, Nilsson Remahl AI, Dizdar N, et al. Duodenal levodopa infusion monotherapy vs oral polypharmacy in advanced Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2005;64(2):216–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Crosby NJ, Deane KH, Clarke CE. Amantadine for dyskinesia in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(2):CD003467.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Deuschl G, Schade-Brittinger C, Krack P, et al. A randomized trial of deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(9):896–908.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Weaver FM, Follett K, Stern M, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation vs best medical therapy for patients with advanced Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301(1):63–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Schupbach WM, Maltete D, Houeto JL, et al. Neurosurgery at an earlier stage of Parkinson disease: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology. 2007;68(4):267–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Louis ED, Ottman R, Hauser WA. How common is the most common adult movement disorder? estimates of the prevalence of essential tremor throughout the world. Mov Disord. 1998;13(1):5–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Deuschl G, Bain P, Brin M. Consensus statement of the Movement Disorder Society on Tremor. Ad Hoc Scientific Committee. Mov Disord. 1998;13(Suppl 3):2–23.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Louis ED. Essential tremor. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(2):100–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Tan LC, Venketasubramanian N, Ramasamy V, Gao W, Saw SM. Prevalence of essential tremor in Singapore: a study on three races in an Asian country. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2005;11(4):233–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Bergareche A, De La Puente E, Lopez De Munain A, et al. Prevalence of essential tremor: a door-to-door survey in bidasoa, spain. Neuroepidemiology. 2001;20(2):125–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Louis ED, Ottman R, Ford B, et al. The Washington Heights-Inwood Genetic Study of Essential Tremor: methodologic issues in essential-tremor research. Neuroepidemiology. 1997;16(3):124–33.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Rajput AH, Offord KP, Beard CM, Kurland LT. Essential tremor in Rochester, Minnesota: a 45-year study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984;47(5):466–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Benito-Leon J, Bermejo-Pareja F, Louis ED. Incidence of essential tremor in three elderly populations of central Spain. Neurology. 2005;64(10):1721–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Louis ED, Ottman R. How familial is familial tremor? The genetic epidemiology of essential tremor. Neurology. 1996;46(5):1200–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Lorenz D, Frederiksen H, Moises H, Kopper F, Deuschl G, Christensen K. High concordance for essential tremor in monozygotic twins of old age. Neurology. 2004;62(2):208–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Tanner CM, Goldman SM, Lyons KE, et al. Essential tremor in twins: an assessment of genetic vs environmental determinants of etiology. Neurology. 2001;57(8):1389–91.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Louis ED, Ottman R. Study of possible factors associated with age of onset in essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2006;21(11):1980–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Higgins JJ, Pho LT, Nee LE. A gene (ETM) for essential tremor maps to chromosome 2p22-p25. Mov Disord. 1997;12(6):859–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Gulcher JR, Jonsson P, Kong A, et al. Mapping of a familial essential tremor gene, FET1, to chromosome 3q13. Nat Genet. 1997;17(1):84–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Shatunov A, Sambuughin N, Jankovic J, et al. Genomewide scans in North American families reveal genetic linkage of essential tremor to a region on chromosome 6p23. Brain. 2006;129(Pt 9):2318–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Blair MA, Ma S, Phibbs F, et al. Reappraisal of the role of the DRD3 gene in essential tremor. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2008;14(6):471–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Tan EK, Prakash KM, Fook-Chong S, et al. DRD3 variant and risk of essential tremor. Neurology. 2007;68(10):790–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Louis ED, Jurewicz EC, Applegate L, et al. Association between essential tremor and blood lead concentration. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(14):1707–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Louis ED, Jiang W, Pellegrino KM, et al. Elevated blood harmane (1-methyl-9 H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole) concentrations in essential tremor. Neurotoxicology. 2008;29(2):294–300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Louis ED, Pullman SL. Comparison of clinical vs. electrophysiological methods of diagnosing of essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2001;16(4):668–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Gironell A, Kulisevsky J, Pascual-Sedano B, Barbanoj M. Routine neurophysiologic tremor analysis as a diagnostic tool for essential tremor: a prospective study. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;21(6):446–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Zesiewicz TA, Elble R, Louis ED, et al. Practice parameter: therapies for essential tremor: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2005;64(12):2008–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Zesiewicz TA, Ward CL, Hauser RA, et al. A pilot, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of pregabalin (Lyrica) in the treatment of essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2007;22(11):1660–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Ondo WG, Jankovic J, Connor GS, et al. Topiramate in essential tremor: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology. 2006;66(5):672–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Elble RJ, Lyons KE, Pahwa R. Levetiracetam is not effective for essential tremor. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2007;30(6):350–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Handforth A, Martin FC. Pilot efficacy and tolerability: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of levetiracetam for essential tremor. Mov Disord. 2004;19(10):1215–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Yetimalar Y, Irtman G, Kurt T, Basoglu M. Olanzapine versus propranolol in essential tremor. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2005;108(1):32–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Simpson DM, Blitzer A, Brashear A, et al. Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders (an evidence-based review): report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2008;70(19):1699–706.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Fahn S. Concept and classification of dystonia. Adv Neurol. 1988;50:1–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Nutt JG, Muenter MD, Aronson A, Kurland LT, Melton 3rd LJ. Epidemiology of focal and generalized dystonia in Rochester, Minnesota. Mov Disord. 1988;3(3):188–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Defazio G, Abbruzzese G, Livrea P, Berardelli A. Epidemiology of primary dystonia. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3(11):673–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. O’Riordan S, Raymond D, Lynch T, et al. Age at onset as a factor in determining the phenotype of primary torsion dystonia. Neurology. 2004;63(8):1423–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Bressman S. Genetics of dystonia. J Neural Transm Suppl. 2006;70:489–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Grundmann K, Laubis-Herrmann U, Bauer I, et al. Frequency and phenotypic variability of the GAG deletion of the DYT1 gene in an unselected group of patients with dystonia. Arch Neurol. 2003;60(9):1266–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Bressman SB, de Leon D, Kramer PL, et al. Dystonia in Ashkenazi Jews: clinical characterization of a founder mutation. Ann Neurol. 1994;36(5):771–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Defazio G, Berardelli A, Hallett M. Do primary adult-onset focal dystonias share aetiological factors? Brain. 2007;130(Pt 5):1183–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Defazio G, Berardelli A, Abbruzzese G, et al. Possible risk factors for primary adult onset dystonia: a case-control investigation by the Italian Movement Disorders Study Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64(1):25–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Defazio G, Abbruzzese G, Girlanda P, et al. Primary cervical dystonia and scoliosis: a multicenter case-control study. Neurology. 2003;60(6):1012–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Martino D, Defazio G, Alessio G, et al. Relationship between eye symptoms and blepharospasm: a multicenter case-control study. Mov Disord. 2005;20(12):1564–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Albanese A, Barnes MP, Bhatia KP, et al. A systematic review on the diagnosis and treatment of primary (idiopathic) dystonia and dystonia plus syndromes: report of an EFNS/MDS-ES Task Force. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13(5):433–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Bressman SB, Sabatti C, Raymond D, et al. The DYT1 phenotype and guidelines for diagnostic testing. Neurology. 2000;54(9):1746–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Bressman SB. Genetics of dystonia: an overview. Parkinson Relat Disord. 2007;13 Suppl 3:S347–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. de Carvalho Aguiar PM, Ozelius LJ. Classification and genetics of dystonia. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1(5):316–25.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(1):CD003633.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. Botulinum toxin type B for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(1):CD004315.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Balash Y, Giladi N. Efficacy of pharmacological treatment of dystonia: evidence-based review including meta-analysis of the effect of botulinum toxin and other cure options. Eur J Neurol. 2004;11(6):361–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Comella CL, Jankovic J, Shannon KM, et al. Comparison of botulinum toxin serotypes A and B for the treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2005;65(9):1423–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Pappert EJ, Germanson T. Botulinum toxin type B vs. type A in toxin-naive patients with cervical dystonia: randomized, double-blind, noninferiority trial. Mov Disord. 2008;23(4):510–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Skogseid IM, Kerty E. The course of cervical dystonia and patient satisfaction with long-term botulinum toxin A treatment. Eur J Neurol. 2005;12(3):163–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Berman B, Seeberger L, Kumar R. Long-term safety, efficacy, dosing, and development of resistance with botulinum toxin type B in cervical dystonia. Mov Disord. 2005;20(2):233–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, et al. Botulinum toxin type A therapy for blepharospasm. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(1):CD004900.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Kruisdijk JJ, Koelman JH, Ongerboer de Visser BW, De Haan RJ, Speelman JD. Botulinum toxin for writer’s cramp: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial and 1-year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78(3):264–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Costa J, Espirito-Santo C, Borges A, Ferreira JJ, Coelho M, Sampaio C. Botulinum toxin type A versus anticholinergics for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005(1):CD004312.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Brans JW, Lindeboom R, Snoek JW, et al. Botulinum toxin versus trihexyphenidyl in cervical dystonia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Neurology. 1996;46(4):1066–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Nutt JG, Hammerstad JP, Carter JH, de Garmo PL. Lisuride treatment of focal dystonias. Neurology. 1985;35(8):1242–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Quinn NP, Lang AE, Sheehy MP, Marsden CD. Lisuride in dystonia. Neurology. 1985;35(5):766–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Kupsch A, Benecke R, Muller J, et al. Pallidal deep-brain stimulation in primary generalized or segmental dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(19):1978–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, et al. Bilateral deep-brain stimulation of the globus pallidus in primary generalized dystonia. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(5):459–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Kiss ZH, Doig-Beyaert K, Eliasziw M, Tsui J, Haffenden A, Suchowersky O. The Canadian multicentre study of deep brain stimulation for cervical dystonia. Brain. 2007;130(Pt 11):2879–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, et al. Bilateral, pallidal, deep-brain stimulation in primary generalised dystonia: a prospective 3 year follow-up study. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(3):223–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Hung SW, Hamani C, Lozano AM, et al. Long-term outcome of bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation for primary cervical dystonia. Neurology. 2007;68(6):457–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Clinical Neurological Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada

    Mary E. Jenkins MD, FRCPC

  2. Division of Neurology, Medicine Department, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Janis M. Miyasaki MD, Med, FRCPC

  3. The Movement Disorders Centre, University Health Network, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Janis M. Miyasaki MD, Med, FRCPC

  4. Toupin Research Chair in Neurology, University of Alberta Hospital, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

    Oksana Suchowersky MD, FRCPC, FCCMG (Professor of Medicine & Medical Genetics)

Authors
  1. Mary E. Jenkins MD, FRCPC
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Janis M. Miyasaki MD, Med, FRCPC
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Oksana Suchowersky MD, FRCPC, FCCMG
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Janis M. Miyasaki MD, Med, FRCPC .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. London Health Sciences Centre, Dept. Clinical Neurosciences, University of Western Ontario, Windermere Road 339, London, N6A 5A5, Ontario, Canada

    Jorge G. Burneo

  2. , Neurology, Mayo Clinic Hospital, E. Mayo Blvd. 5777, Phoenix, 85054, Arizona, USA

    Bart M. Demaerschalk

  3. London Health Sciences Centre, Dept. Clinical Neurosciences, University of Western Ontario, Windermere Road 339, London, N6A 5A5, Ontario, Canada

    Mary E. Jenkins

Search Strategies

Search Strategies

Parkinson’s Disease

Epidemiology

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) terms and text words Parkinson’s disease, epidemiology, and (etiology OR risk factors OR prevalence OR incidence) were combined with the Boolean “AND”. Limits of “human,” “English,” “meta-analysis,” and “practice guidelines” were applied. This resulted in 85 citations. The citations and abstracts of these were reviewed for relevance and 14 articles were chosen for review. Reference lists of review articles were also screened for any relevant articles.

Six meta-analyses and one case-control study dealing with incidence, prevalence, and risk factors were included as they represented the highest level of evidence.

Diagnosis

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words Parkinson’s disease and diagnosis were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English,” “human,” and “practice guidelines” a final set of 16 citations were obtained. From this search, all citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing four articles. All four articles were reviewed and included if they met the following criteria: address a focused clinical question, contain a thorough search of the literature, and assess the validity of the studies.

A second search was conducted using the MeSH terms and text words Parkinson’s disease and diagnosis and (sensitivity OR specificity) and (physical examination OR magnetic resonance imaging OR positron-emission tomography OR ultrasonography OR olfactory OR SPECT OR growth hormone OR cardiac MIBG OR physical examination OR diagnostic tests) and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English” and “human” a final set of 470 citations were obtained, of which 63 articles were selected and reviewed; they were included if they contributed new information not reported in the meta-analysis or systematic practice guidelines, and if they met the following criteria: appropriate spectrum of patients included, presence of a defined gold standard (autopsy or the surrogate marker of clinical diagnosis), diagnostic test was compared to the gold standard in a blinded fashion, and greater than ten participants in the each cohort.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term Parkinson’s disease and diagnosis revealing no additional reviews.

One practice parameter, two systematic reviews, one critically appraised topic, and eleven additional cohort or case-control studies fulfilled criteria.

Treatment

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words Parkinson’s disease and (therapy OR therapeutics) were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English,” “human,” and (“meta-analysis” OR “practice guidelines”) a final set of 77 citations were obtained. From this search, all citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing 35 articles. All 35 articles were reviewed and included if they met the following criteria: addressed a focused clinical question, contained a thorough search of the literature, and assessed the validity of the studies.

The same search using the limit “randomized controlled trial” and “the last 5 years” was searched to reveal any new therapy studies that may have been published since the most recent meta-analysis and practice guidelines. This search revealing 285 citations that were reviewed and 70 citations were chosen from this group. The abstracts of these articles were reviewed for relevance. Thirty five articles were chosen for formal review and included if they contributed new information not reported in the meta-analysis or systematic practice guidelines, and if they met the following criteria: concealed randomization, blinding of outcomes, patient losses less than 20%, and at least 20 participants.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term Parkinson’s disease revealing an additional four reviews.

For medication treatment in the early stages of PD, three Cochrane systematic reviews, one meta-analysis, and three well-designed practice parameters fulfilled criteria for inclusion. For medication treatment of the motor fluctuations and dyskinesias in PD, two Cochrane systematic reviews and two practice parameters fulfilled criteria. For surgical treatment of motor fluctuations and dyskinesias, two practice parameters, one meta-analysis, and three recent RCT fulfilled criteria. For treatment of depression, psychosis, and dementia in PD, one practice parameter, three meta-analyses, and one recent RCT met criteria.

Essential Tremor

Epidemiology

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH and text words essential tremor, epidemiology, and (etiology OR risk factors OR prevalence OR incidence) was combined with the Boolean “AND.” Limits of “human” and “English” were applied. This resulted in 180 citations. The citations and abstracts of these were reviewed for relevance and 73 articles were chosen for review. Reference lists of review articles were also screened for any relevant articles.

One meta-analysis and 13 case-control or cohort studies were included as they represented the highest level of evidence.

Diagnosis

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words essential tremor and diagnosis were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” The search limits “English,” “human,” and “practice guidelines” were included. No citations were found.

A second search was conducted using the MeSH terms and text words essential tremor, diagnosis, diagnostic tests, and (sensitivity OR specificity) and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English” and “human,” a final set of 57 citations were obtained. From this search, all citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing 13 articles. All 13 articles were reviewed and included if they met the following criteria: appropriate spectrum of patients included, presence of a defined gold standard (autopsy or the surrogate marker of clinical diagnosis), diagnostic test was compared to the gold standard in a blinded fashion, and greater than ten participants in each cohort.

A third search using the term accuracy in place of diagnostic tests, sensitivity, and specificity was conducted. Two additional articles were found and reviewed.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term tremor and diagnosis revealing no additional reviews.

One retrospective study and two double-blind, prospective trials fulfilled criteria for inclusion.

Treatment

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words (tremor OR essential tremor) and (therapy OR therapeutics) were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English,” “human,” and (“meta-analysis” OR “practice guidelines”) a final set of three citations were obtained. From this search, all citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing two practice parameters. These two systematic reviews were included as they met the following criteria: address a focused clinical question, contain a thorough search of the literature, and assess the validity of the studies.

The same search using the limits “randomized controlled trial” and “the last 10 years” was searched to reveal any new therapy studies that may have been published since the most recent practice guidelines. This search revealing 167 citations that were reviewed for relevance to the clinical question; 30 citations were chosen from this group. The abstracts of these articles were reviewed for relevance. Twenty one articles were chosen for formal review and included if they contributed new information not reported in the systematic practice guidelines, and if they met the following criteria: concealed randomization, blinding of outcomes, patient lost to follow-up less than 20%, and at least 20 participants.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term tremor revealing no additional reviews.

Two well-designed practice parameters and eight randomized controlled trials fulfilled criteria for inclusion.

Dystonia

Epidemiology

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH and text words (primary dystonia OR dystonic disorders), epidemiology, (etiology OR risk factors OR prevalence OR incidence) was combined with the Boolean “AND.” Limits of “human” and “English” were applied. This resulted in 217 citations. The citations and abstracts were reviewed for relevance and 44 articles chosen for review. Reference lists of review articles were also screened for relevant articles.

One meta-analysis plus eight case-control and cohort studies were included as they represented the highest level of evidence.

Diagnosis

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words (primary dystonia OR dystonic disorders) and diagnosis were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” The search limits “English” and “human” and “practice guidelines” were included. One citation was found.

A second search was conducted using the MeSH terms and text words (primary dystonia OR dystonic disorders), diagnosis, and (diagnostic tests OR sensitivity OR specificity) combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English” and “human” a final set of 71 citations were obtained. All citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing five articles. All five articles were reviewed and included if they met the following criteria: appropriate spectrum of patients included, presence of a defined gold standard (autopsy or the surrogate marker of clinical diagnosis), diagnostic test was compared to the gold standard in a blinded fashion, and greater than ten participants in the each cohort.

A third search using the term accuracy in place of (diagnostic tests OR sensitivity OR specificity) was conducted. No additional articles were found.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term primary dystonia and diagnosis revealing no additional reviews.

One practice guideline and two case-control studies fulfilled criteria for inclusion.

Treatment

MEDLINE database was searched since its inception to January of 2009. MeSH terms and text words (dystonic disorders OR primary dystonia) and (therapy OR therapeutics) were searched and combined using the Boolean “AND.” After limiting the retrieval to “English,” “human,” and (meta-analysis OR practice guidelines), a final set of 13 citations were obtained. From this search, all citations and abstracts were searched for relevance to the clinical question revealing one practice parameter and three meta-analyses. These four systematic reviews were included as they met the following criteria: address a focused clinical question, contain a thorough search of the literature, and assess the validity of the studies.

The same search using the limits (randomized controlled trial OR clinical trial) instead of (meta-analysis OR practice guidelines) was conducted to reveal any new therapeutic studies that may have been published since the most recent practice guidelines and meta-analysis. This search revealed 208 citations, which were reviewed for relevance to the clinical question; 53 citations were chosen from this group. The abstracts of these articles were reviewed for relevance. Nineteen articles were chosen for formal review and included if they contributed new information not reported in the systematic reviews and if they met the following criteria: concealed randomization, blinding of outcomes, patient lost to follow-up less than 20%, and at least 20 participants.

Cochrane Database was searched from inception to January 2009 for the term primary dystonia revealing three additional reviews.

One well-designed practice parameter, six meta-analyses and ten controlled trials fulfilled criteria for inclusion.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jenkins, M.E., Miyasaki, J.M., Suchowersky, O. (2012). Movement Disorders. In: Burneo, J., Demaerschalk, B., Jenkins, M. (eds) Neurology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88555-1_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88555-1_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-88554-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-88555-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation