Abstract
The upheavals of the 1640s transformed England’s cultural no less than its political landscape. The theatres closed and court patronage disappeared but there was an explosion of controversy in the pulpit, the press and other media. The legacy of argument and invective remained long after the Restoration; for the rest of the century memories of the Great Rebellion overshadowed the nation.
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Notes and References
Historical surveys include Robert Ashton, Counter-Revolution, Charles Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–1651 (1992), Fletcher, Outbreak;
Ian Gentles, The New Model Army (1992),
Mark Kishlansky, The Rise of the New Model Army (Cambridge, 1979),
J. S. Morrill, The Revolt of the Provinces (1976) and English Revolution;
Russell, Causes and British Monarchies; Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion. For literary surveys see, esp., Thomas N. Corns, Uncloistered Virtue: English Political Literature, 1640–1660 (Oxford, 1992), Healy and Sawday (eds), Literature and Civil War; Potter, Royalist Writings; Smith, Literature and Revolution;
and Michael Wilding, Dragon’s Teeth: Literature in the English Revolution (Oxford, 1987).
See Catalogue of the Pamphlets, Books, Newspapers, and Manuscripts Relating to the Civil War, the Commonwealth, and Restoration, Collected by George Thomason, 1640–1661 (British Library Catalogue, rpt. Liechtestein, 1969), p.xxi.
See, e.g., Hill, Society and Puritanism; Smuts, Court Culture; P. W. Thomas, ‘Two Cultures? Court and Country under Charles I’ in Conrad Russell (ed.), The Origins of the English Civil War (1973), pp. 168–93;
Perez Zagorin, The Court and the Country (New York, 1971);
Lawrence Stone, Causes of the English Revolution (1972), esp. pp. 79–117.
Among the more important, Puritanism and Revolution (1958); Society and Puritanism; Intellectual Origins, World Turned Upside Down, Milton and Some Contemporaries, (1984), The Consequences of the English Revolution (Madison, WI, 1980), The Experience of Defeat, Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England (1975) and English Bible.
For an appreciative but tough-minded critique see Morrill, English Revolution, ch. 14.
Alastair MacLachlam, The Rise and Fall of Revolutionary England: An Essay on the Fabrication of Seventeenth Century History (1996)
Cf. Conrad Russell’s comment in the Preface to British Monarchies’. ‘Ever since I was an undergraduate, it has worried me that so much work on the causes of the English Civil War was accompanied by so little investigation into the effects for which causes had to be found’ (p.vii).
Russell, Causes, p. 5. The Lord Chamberlains were the Earls of Pembroke and Essex.
Morrill, English Revolution, p. 13.
J. S. Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces.
Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion.
British Monarchies, p.vii.
E.g. Kevin Sharpe, Personal Rule; Fletcher, Outbreak; Russell, Fall; Ashton, Counter Revolution. The shift back towards detailed narrative was anticipated by two pre-revisionist works, Blair Worden, The Rump Parliament (Cambridge, 1974)
and David Underdown, Pride’s Purge: Politics in the Puritan Revolution (London, 1971).
‘England’s Troubles 1603–1702’ in Smuts (ed.), Stuart Court, pp. 20–38 at p. 22.
For some perceptive comments see Peter Lake’s review article on Conrad Russell’s Causes and Britsh Monarchies in Huntington Library Quarterly 57 (1994), 167–97.
See, e.g. Morrill, English Revolution, ch. 4.
Russell, Causes, ch. 4; Morrill, ‘The Religious Context of the English Civil War’ in English Revolution; Peter Lake, Anglicans and Puritans?; N. R. N. Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: the Rise of English Arminianism (Oxford, 1987); Milton, Catholic and Reformed.
See, esp., Smith, Constitutional Royalism; Tuck, Philosophy and Government, chs 6 and 7; Michael Mendle, Henry Parker; David Wootton, ‘From Rebellion to Revolution: the crisis of the winter of 1642/3 and the origins of civil war radicalism’ in English Historical Review 105 (1990), 634–69.
In addition to the works cited above, n. 1, see C. John Sommerville, News Revolution; Friedman, Pulp Press; Love, Scribal Publication.
Russell, Fall, p. 1, a position shared by Kevin Sharpe, Personal Rule; David Underdown, A Freeborn People: Politics and the Nation in Seventeenth-Century England (Oxford, 1996).
Russell, Causes, ch. 1; British Monarchies, passim.
Hibbard, Popish Plot.
An exception - significantly produced by a literary scholar rather than an historian — is Erica Veevers, Images of Love and Religion: Queen Henrietta Maria and Court Entertainments (Cambridge, 1993).
Morrill, English Revolution, ch. 4; Smith, Constitutional Royalism, chs 3–4.
For the royalists a start has been made by Smith. For Selden see Richard Tuck, ‘“The Ancient Law of Freedom”: John Selden and the Civil War’ in Morrill (ed.), Reactions to the Civil War and Christianson, John Selden.
Keith Wrightson and David Levine, Poverty and Piety in an English Village: Terling, 1525–1700 (1979);
Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion and Fire from Heaven (1992).
This summary attempts to recapitulate the main arguments of Wrightson and Levine, Poverty and Piety, ch. 1 and passim; Wrightson, English Society, esp. chs 2 and 5–7; Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion, chs 2 and 3 and Fire From Heaven. See, in addition, William Hunt, The Puritan Moment: the Coming of Revolution in an English County (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), parts I and II.
Wrightson and Levine, Poverty and Piety; Underdown, Fire from Heaven.
Revel, Riot and Rebellion, p. 40; cf. p. 72.
Ibid., p. 5.
Ingram, Church Courts.
Ibid., pp. 101–7; J. S. Morrill, ‘The Ecology of Allegiance in the English Civil Wars’, Journal of British Studies 26 (1987), 451–67 (rpt. as English Revolution, ch. 11); Underdown, ‘A Reply to John Morrill’, ibid., pp. 468–79; Hughes, Causes, pp. 137–48; idem, Politics, society and Civil War in Warwickshire, 1620–1660 (Cambridge, 1987), chs 1, 2 and 4.
Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (1979).
For a summary of the objections see Tim Harris, ‘Problematising Popular Culture’ in Harris (ed.), Popular Culture in England, c. 1500–1850, (1995), pp. 1–27.
Watt, Cheap Print; Peter Lake, ‘Deeds Against Nature: Cheap Print, Protestantism and Murder in Early Seventeenth Century England’ in Sharpe and Lake (eds), Culture and Politics; Hutton, Merry England and ‘The English Reformation and the Evidence of Folklore’, Past and Present, 148 (1996), 89–116.
Russell, Causes, p. 85.
A point emphasized by Collinson, Birthpangs, pp. 141–3.
A recent attempt to test Underdown’s thesis is Mark Stoye, Loyalty and Locality: Popular Allegiance in Devon during the English Civil War (Exeter, 1994).
See Harris, ‘Propaganda and Public Opinion’ and Richard Cust and Anne Hughes, ‘Introduction: after Revisionism’ in Conflict in Early Stuart England: Studies in Religion and Politics 1603–1642 (1989), p. 13.
Shagan, ‘Constructing Discord’.
Fletcher, Outbreak, ‘Introduction’.
Smith, Literature and Revolution, p. 24.
Ibid., p. 24; Friedman, Pulp Press, pp. 13–14.
Mendle, ‘De Facto Freedom De Facto Authority: Press and Parliament, 1640–43’, Historical Journal 38 (1995), esp. 313–18.
For speeches see A. D. T. Cromartie, ‘The Printing of Parliamentary Speeches November 1640–July 1642’ in Historical Journal, 33 (1990), 23–44;
for sermons John F. Wilson, Pulpit in Parliament: Puritanism during the English Civil Wars 1640–1648 (Princeton, 1969). Appendix Two of this work provides a complete list of printed sermons preached to the Long Parliament.
This and the following paragraph are based on the Catalogue. For discussion see Sommerville, News Revolution, esp. pp. 34–43; Smith, Literature and Revolution, ch. 1; Achtinstein, Milton and the Revolutionary Reader (Princeton, 1994) pp. 10–13.
Ibid., pp. 323–5.
Morrill, English Revolution, p. 61.
Mendle, ‘De Facto Freedom’, 307–32; Shagan, ‘Constructing Discord’.
As recent work has exhaustively shown. See, in particular, Hibbard, Popish Plot; Morrill, English Revolution; Fletcher, Outbreak and, with a somewhat different emphasis, Russell, British Monarchies.
Fletcher, Outbreak, p. 60; The Copy of a Letter of Father Philips, which was thought to be sent into France to Mr Montague (1641). Fears of a French invasion had surfaced as early as April (ibid., p. 15).
For the remonstrance see John Kenyon, ed., The Stuart Constitution (Cambridge, 1966), pp. 228–40.
See, esp., R. Clifton, ‘The Fear of Catholicism during the English Civil War’, Past and Present, 52 (1971), 23–55.
A count based on the Catalogue.
Shagan, ‘Constructing Discord’.
See, e.g., clause 28 of the Root and Branch Petition in Kenyon, Stuart Constitution, p. 175.
For the petition itself see Richard Strier, ‘From Diagnosis to Operation’, in David L. Smith, Richard Strier and David Bevington (eds), The Theatrical City: Culture, Theatre and Politics in London, 1576–1649 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 224–43. The divisiveness of the assault on episcopacy has again been stressed in recent accounts, for example Fletcher, Outbreak, esp. ch. 3; Morrill, English Revolution, esp. pp. 52–90, 149–175; Russell, Causes, ch. 5; Smith, Constitutional Royalism, ch. 4.
Fletcher, Outbreak, pp. 94–6, 110.
Valerie Pearl, London and the Outbreak of the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1961), pp. 210–36. For two recent analyses see David L. Smith, ‘From Petition to Remonstrance’ and Richard Strier, ‘Diagnosis to Operation’, both in Theatrical City, pp. 224–43.
Ibid., p. 97; Morrill, English Revolution, p. 71.
See, among many sources that might be cited, the opening clauses of the Root and Branch Petition (Kenyon, Stuart Constitution, pp. 172–4) and Pym’s speech of 17 April, 1640 (Ibid., p. 200). Cf. Strier, ‘Diagnosis to Operation’, pp. 226–33.
E.g. ‘Of Reformation’ in Works, ed. Frank Allen Patterson et al. (New York 1931), v. i, p. 67.
‘Of Reformation’, ibid., pp. 24–5.
Ibid., pp. 37–8.
Capp, Fifth Monarchy Men, pp. 30–40; Wilson, Pulpit in Parliament.
Milton, Works, v. 4, p. 340.
Ibid., p. 339; cf. p. 342.
Among many examples see ibid., pp. 310–11, 348.
Thomas Edwards, Gangraena (1646), p. 4.
A point especially emphasized by Underdown, Freeborn People, ch. 5.
Above, p. 46.
Capp, John Taylor, p. 144. For two very different interpretations see Brian Manning, The English People and the English Revolution (1976) and Morrill, English Revolution, ch. 18. Both agree on the importance of perceptions of disorder in fuelling a backlash that benefited the King.
Fletcher, Outbreak, p. 89.
Ibid., p. 112; Capp, John Taylor, p. 164
Above, p. 46; Smith, Literature and Revolution, pp. 295–319; Potter, Royalist Literature, pp. 30–1.
‘The Rebel Scot’, John Cleveland, Poems, ed. Morris and Withington (Oxford, 1967).
See Corns, Uncloistered Virtue, pp. 8–9.
Abraham Cowley, The Civil War, ed. Allan Pritchart (Toronto, 1973), p. 92. A good commentary is MacLean, Time’s Witness, pp. 194–9.
Corns, Uncloistered Virtue, pp. 3–7.
Ashton, Counter-Revolution, pp. 199–200.
Cleveland, ‘The Hue and Cry after Sir John Presbyter’, Poems, p. 47.
Edward Symmons, A Militarie Sermon… Preached at Shrewsbury… To His Majesty’s Army (1644), quoted in Carlton, Going to the Wars, p. 52. Chapter 3 of this book discusses the different cultures of royalist and parliamentary soldiers.
For examples see Ashton, Counter-Revolution, pp. 203–4.
For a good brief discussion see ibid., pp. 197–205.
Among the best analyses are Miner, Cavalier Mode; Marcus, Politics of Mirth; Potter, Royalist Literature; and Zwicker, Lines of Authority, chs 2–3,
The most thorough treatment is Smith, Constitutional Royalism.
Useful information can be gleaned from a number of specialized studies, including David Underdown, Royalist Conspiracy in England, 1649–1660 (New Haven, 1960);
Ronald Hutton, The Royalist War Effort 1642–1646 (1982); Carlton, Going to the Wars, pp. 49–59;
P. R. Newman, The Old Service: Royalist regimental colonels and the Civil War, 1642–46 (Manchester, 1993);
Ashton, Counter-Revolution, chs 6–8 and several county histories, e.g. David Underdown, Somerset in the Civil War and Interregnum (1973); Hughes, Warwickshire.
There is no recent general treatment of the royalist gentry comparable to J. T. Cliffe, Puritans in conflict: the Puritan gentry during and after the civil wars (1988)
and The Puritan gentry besieged, 1650–1700 (1993). For popular royalism Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion is suggestive.
The last book-length survey, Paul Hardacre, The Royalists During the Puritan Revolution (The Hague, 1956) badly needs updating.
P. W. Thomas, Berkenhead; Potter, Royalist Literature, ch. 1.
Smith, Constitutional Royalism is a thorough survey.
Mendle, Parker, esp. pp. 70–93; Smith, pp. 221–7.
This has been a major theme of several recent discussions, e.g. Morrill, Revolt of the Provinces; Robert Ashton, ‘From Cavalier to Roundhead Tyranny, 1642–9’ in Morrill (ed.), Reactions to Civil War; Ashton, Counter-Revolution, esp. chs 3, 5 and 6.
Hence the demand for indemnity from malicious prosecutions by the soldiers. For discussions see Kishlansky, New Model Army, pp. 156–7; Gentles, New Model Army, ch. 5; Ashton, Counter-Revolution, pp. 159–62 and 223–8.
Ibid., pp. 203–12. For the popularity of Robin Hood ballads in the seventeenth century as a vehicle for popular protest see Christopher Hill, Liberty Against Law (1996) chs 5 and 6.
Smith, Literature and Revolution, pp. 134–42; Ashton, Counter-Revolution, pp. 109–16.
Smith, Literature and Revolution, pp. 59–61; Potter, Royalist Literature, pp. 7–13; Thomas, Berkenhead.
Sommerville, News Revolution, pp. 38–40 and 51–2. Cromwell’s nose and Speaker Lenthall’s stammer were among the frequent targets.
Timothy Raylor, Cavaliers, Clubs and Literary Culture: Sir John Mennes, James Smith and the Order of the Fancy (Newark, Delaware, 1994).
For two particularly good examples see Potter, Royalist Literature and Miner, Cavalier Mode.
Potter, Secret Rites, ch. 1 and Manley, Early Modern London, pp. 516–30 discuss royalist printing.
Marotti, Manuscript, Print and the Lyric, pp. 259–61.
For a discussion of this point with respect to a specific poem see Graham Parry, ‘A Troubled Arcadia’ in Healy and Sawday (eds), Literature and the Civil War.
Miner, Cavalier Mode; Manley, Early Modern London, pp. 516–30.
Miner, Cavalier Mode is an appreciative survey. More recent treatments include Marcus, Politics of Mirth, esp. ch. 7; Corns, Uncloistered Virtue, pp. 76–129; Potter, Royalist Literature.
Marcus, Politics of Mirth, pp. 151–68.
Marotti, Manuscript, Print and the Lyric, pp. 76–8.
Jonathan Dewald, Aristocratic Experience and the Origins of Modern Culture: France, 1570–1750 (Berkeley, 1973); Veevers, Henrietta Maria, ch. 1.
Dudley, Lord North, The Promiscuous Forest (1659).
Cowley, Essays, Plays and Sundry Verses, ed. A. R. Waller (Cambridge, 1906), p.381.
Ibid.
Jonathan Sawday, ‘“Mysteriously divided”: Civil War, madness and the divided self’ in Healy and Sawday (eds), Literature and Civil War; Smuts, Court Culture, pp. 253–62.
Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. C. B. MacPherson (1968), p. 168.
Amidst the vast bibliography see Richard Tuck, Thomas Hobbes (Oxford, 1989) and Philosophy and Government, esp. ch. 7,
and the essays in The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes (Cambridge, 1996).
See Smith, ‘Interregnum Poetry’.
David F. Gladish (ed.), Sir William Davenant’s Gondibert (Oxford, 1971), p. 22.
Ibid., p. 18.
Smith, ‘Interregnum Poetry’. Cf. Reid Barbour, ‘The Early Stuart Epicure’ in English Literary Renaissance, 23 (1993), pp. 170–200
and English Epicures and Stoics: Ancient Legacies in Early Stuart Culture (Amherst, Ma., 1998).
R0stvig, Happy Man, pp. 48–9, 122–51.
See Zwicker, Lines of Authority, ch. 3. Smith has argued convincingly that evidence commonly used to demonstrate an attraction to Epicureanism by puritans and supporters of the Commonwealth actually suggests the opposite (‘English Epicureanism’, pp. 200–9).
See, for example, David Norbrook, ‘Marvell’s ‘Horatian Ode and the politics of genre’ in Healy and Sawday (eds), Literature and Civil War; Blair Worden, ‘Andrew Marvell, Oliver Cromwell, and the Horatian Ode’ in Kevin Sharpe and Steven Zwicker (eds), The Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley, 1987);
Annabel Patterson, Andrew Marvel and the Civic Crown (Princeton, 1978), pp. 60–9. One effect of this reinterpretation is to bring Marvell’s views much closer to those of his friend, John Milton.
For discussions see Ashton, Counter Revolution; Kishlansky, New Model Army and ‘Ideology and Politics in the Parliamentary Armies’ in Morrill (ed.), Reactions to Civil War; Morrill, English Revolution, ch. 17; Underdown, Pride’s Purge; Gentles, New Model Army, chs 7–10 and Blair Worden, Rump Parliament. Sean Kelsey, Inventing a Republic: the Political Culture of the English Commonwealth, 1649–1653 (Manchester, 1997) reached me too late to be taken into account here.
The evidence is reviewed in the introduction to the standard modern edition, Philip Knachel (ed.), Eikon Basilike: The Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in His Solitudes and Sufferings (Ithaca, 1966).
Potter, Royalist Literature, p. 170. Potter rightly describes these figures as ‘one of the most important facts of the period’.
Friedman, Pulp Press, p. 36.
Capp, Fifth Monarchy Men.
William Lamont, Richard Baxter and the Millennium: Protestant Imperialism and the English Revolution (1979).
Friedman, Pulp Press ch. 4; Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, chs 11–13; B. S. Capp, English Almanacs, 1500–1800: Astrology and the Popular Press (Ithaca, 1979).
Bernard Capp, ‘The Fifth Monarchists and Popular Millenarianism’ in MacGregor and Burns (eds), Radical Religion, p. 178.
See, for example, Worden, ‘Providence and Politics’.
Three recent studies are Patsy Griffin, The Modest Ambition of Andrew Marvell: A Study of Marvell and His Relation to Lovelace, Fairfax, Cromwell and Milton (Newark, Delaware, 1995); David Norbrook, ‘Marvell’s “Horatian Ode” and the Politics of Genre’ in Healy and Sawday (eds), Literature and Civil War, pp. 147–69; and Blair Worden, ‘Andrew Marvell, Oliver Cromwell, and the Horatian Ode’ in Sharpe and Zwicker (eds), Politics of Discourse, pp. 147–80.
Worden, ‘Andrew Marvell’, p. 151.
Worden, ‘Andrew Marvell’, Norbrook, ‘Horatian Ode’; Griffin Modest Ambition, esp. p. 42.
Andrew Marvell, ‘An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland’, 11. 101–4.
Worden, ‘Andrew Marvell’, comments ‘“An Hannibal to Italy” would do everything but win’ (p. 171).
Cf. Parry, Seventeenth-Century Poetry, pp. 227–42.
Hirst and Zwicker, ‘High Summer at Nun Appleton’.
For the Hermetic strains see R0stvig, Happy Man I, p. 154.
This is the conclusion of Hirst and Zwicker as well as Griffin, who arrived at it by a different route. See Ambition of Andrew Marvell, pp. 56–61.
Quentin Skinner, ‘Conquest and Consent: Thomas Hobbes and the Engagement Controversy’ in Gerald Aylmer (ed.), The Interregnum: The Quest for Settlement 1646–1660 (1972), pp. 79–98.
Christopher Hill, ‘The Norman Yoke’ in Intellectual Origins, pp. 361–66.
Ferdinand Tonnies (ed.), Behemoth, or the Long Parliament (1969), p. 3.
Worden, ‘English Republicanism’, pp. 444–6; Peltonen, Republicanism.
Worden, ‘Classical Republicanism and the Puritan Revolution’ in History and Imagination: Essays in Honour of H. R. Trevor-Roper (1981), pp. 181–200.
Smuts, ‘Court-Centred Politics’, pp. 41–2.
David Norbrook, ‘Lucan, Thomas May, and the Creation of a Republican Literary Culture’ in Sharpe and Lake (eds), Culture and Politics, pp. 45–66.
Cf. Morrill, English Revolution, p. 50 and ch. 3 generally.
Mendle, Parker; Wootton, ‘Rebellion to Revolution’, esp. 666–9 for exceptions.
David Wootton. ‘Leveller democracy’, pp. 418–19.
Above, pp. 12–13, 71–3; McCoy, ‘Old English Honour’.
See Scott, Sidney and the Restoration Crisis.
Blair Worden, ‘“Wit in a Roundhead”: the dilemma of Marchamont Nedham’ in Political culture and cultural politics in early modern England: Essays presented to David Underdown (Manchester, 1995).
Blair Worden, ‘Marchamont Nedham and the Beginnings of English Republicanism’ in David Wootton (ed.), Republicanism, Liberty and Commercial Society, 1649–1776, pp. 45–81; Pocock and Schochet, ‘Interregnum and Restoration’, pp. 157–61.
Marchamont Nedham, The Case of the Commonwealth Truly Stated, ed. Philip Knachel (Charlottesville, 1969).
Martin Dzelzainis, ‘Milton’s classical republicanism’; Thomas N. Corns, ‘Milton and the characteristics of a free commonwealth’; Cedric Brown, ‘Great senates and godly education: politics and cultural renewal in some pre- and post-revolutionary texts of Milton’; and Blair Worden, ‘Milton and Marchamont Nedham’ all in David Armitage, Armand Himy and Quentin Skinner (eds), Milton and Republicanism (Cambridge, 1995).
Ibid., p. 112.
Dzelzainis, ‘Milton’s republicanism’, p. 22.
Scott, Sidney and the Republic is perceptive on this point, e.g. pp. 15–16, 21–3, 29.
Protestantism, p. 19.
Ibid., p. 79 and, more generally, pp. 1–187.
Calendar of State Papers Venetian vol. 30, p. 136, Sagredo dispatch of 12 November 1655.
Ibid., pp. 72–3
Ibid., p. 197.
Worden, ‘Cromwell and the Sin of Achan’; David Armitage, ‘The Cromwellian Protectorate and the Languages of Empire’, Historical Journal, 35 (1992), 531–55.
Worden, ‘Nedham and Republicanism’, p. 77 and Ruth E. Mayers, ‘Real and Practicable, not Imaginary and Notional: Sir Henry Vane, A Healing Question, and the Problems of the Protectorate’, Albion, 28 (1986), 37–72.
Blair Worden, ‘James Harrington and “the Commonwealth of Oceana”’, in Wootton (ed.), Republicanism, pp. 89–91.
James Harrington, The Commonwealth of Oceana, ed. J. G. A. Pocock (Cambridge, 1992), p. 8.
Ibid., p. 8 for the quoted passages and pp. 1–68 for Harrington’s elaboration and explication of his argument.
Ibid., p. 53.
On this see, esp., the various essays of John Pocock, particularly the introductions to Harrington, Oceana and Works of Harrington and, for a broad contextualization, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, 1975), chs 10–12.
Oceana, ed. Pocock, pp. 13–14.
Ibid., p. 55. Harrington describes the yeomanry as ‘middle people’.
Ibid., p. 54.
Ibid., p. 56.
Pocock and Schochet, ‘Interregnum and Restoration’, p. 168.
Worden, ‘James Harrington’, p. 102; Pocock, ‘Introduction’ to Oceana, pp. xxi–xxiv.
Wootton, Republicanism surveys this tradition.
The best treatment is Hutton, Restoration, Parts 1–2.
Ibid., p. 47. See also Weber, Paper Bullets, pp. 4–5.
Reay, Quakers, p. 83.
Ibid., ch. 5.
Hutton, Restoration, p. 61.
Ibid., pp. 53–61.
Ibid., p. 100.
For brief treatments see Hume, English Drama, pp. 111–15 and Back-scheider, Spectacular Politics, pp. 23–8.
John Tatham, The Rump; or the Mirrour of the late Times (1660), p. 46.
Ibid., p. 27.
Ibid., pp. 66–8.
Hutton, Restoration, p. 216.
Ibid., pp. 125–7.
Underdown, Revel, Riot, Rebellion, pp. 273–83.
Ibid., pp. 271–2.
MacLean (ed.) Stuart Restoration, p. 4; Weber, Paper Bullets, ch. 1; Back-scheider, Spectacular Politics, ch. 1.
Bruce Yardley, ‘George Villiers, Second Duke of Buckingham and the Politics of Toleration’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 55 (1992), 317–38, esp. 323–4.
Ronald Hutton, ‘The Religion of Charles if’ in Smuts (ed.), Stuart Court, pp. 228–46.
Harris, London Crowds, p. 55.
A point emphasized in much recent work. See, for example, Paul Seward, The Cavalier Parliament and the Reconstruction of the Old Regime, 1661–1667 (Cambridge, 1989); Spurr, Restoration Church.
Harris, London Crowds, pp. 70–1; Spurr, pp. 51–61; Greaves, Radicals and Nonconformists. John Spurr, ‘Religion in Restoration England’ in Lionel Glassey (ed.), The Reigns of Charles II and James VII & II (1997), pp. 90–124. discusses the ambiguities of the 1660 settlement at the parish level.
Spurr, Restoration Church pp. 48–9. For a detailed analysis of Samuel Parker’s Discourse of Ecclesiastical Policy (1669) see Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics, pp. 22–74.
Scott, ‘England’s Troubles’ in Smuts (ed.) Stuart Court.
Zwicker, Lines of Authority, pp. 7–8.
Steven Shapin, Leviathan and the air-pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the experimental life (Princeton, 1984).
Lamont, Baxter and the Millennium.
E.g. Harris, London Crowds’, Ashcraft, Locke; Scott, Sidney and Restoration Crisis; Greaves, Nonconformists; Knights, Politics and Opinion.
On the sale of the royal collection see Brown, Kings and Connoisseurs: Collecting Art in Seventeenth Century Europe (Princeton and London, 1995), ch. 2.
Hutton, Restoration, p. 186.
Ibid., pp. 146–7. The situation in post-Restoration neighbourhoods has yet to be closely investigated.
Smuts, Court Culture, ch. 3.
On this subject see Michael Hunter, Science and Society in Restoration England (Cambridge, 1981).
Maguire, Regicide and Restoration, pp. 3–28. For Dryden’s connections to the Howards, see Winn, Dryden, ch. 5.
Maguire, pp. 84–7; Frank Kernik, British Drama, 1660–1779 (New York, 1995), pp. 5–8. The standard survey remains Hume, English Drama.
Maguire, Regicide, pp. 102–4, summarizes recent research on this topic.
Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1544–1642 (Cambridge, 3rd ed., 1992).
Maguire, Regicide, p. 127; Winn, Dryden, pp. 189–90.
O’Neill, Buckingham, pp. 62–4; Hume, p. 262.
Yardley, ‘Buckingham’.
Sutherland, Restoration Newspaper, pp. 6–12; Sommerville, News Revolution, pp. 61–2.
Greaves, Nonconformists, p. 170; Keeble, Literary Culture of Nonconformity, pp. 102–8.
Greaves, p. 184; Keeble, p. 108.
Ibid., pp. 167–92.
Greaves, passim-, Keeble, pp. 136–44; Cliffe, pp. 109–12 and passim.
Love, Scribal Publication.
Ibid., p. 189.
Ibid., p. 18.
Pincus, ‘Coffee houses’.
Love, Scribal Publication, pp.210 and 194–5.
The reactions of some of these have been ably retold by Christopher Hill, The Experience of Defeat. For many radicals, the experience of defeat began in 1649 or 1653 rather than 1660, although the Restoration compounded the humiliation.
Blair Worden, ‘Milton, Samson Agonistes and the Restoration’ in MacClean (ed.), Stuart Restoration, pp. 111–36.
Greaves, Nonconformists, p. 137.
Scott, Sidney and the English Republic; Sidney and the Restoration Crisis.
Greaves, Nonconformists, is the best survey.
Cliffe, Puritan Gentry Besieged, pp. 136–41, 170–4.
Ibid., pp. 147–50.
Keeble, Literary Culture of Nonconformity, pp. 140–4.
Ibid., p. 22.
Ibid., pp. 78–81.
Ibid., p. 5.
Ibid., pp. 50–4.
Ibid., pp. 82–5, 142–53, 211–13.
For a systematic discussion of Restoration arguments against concepts of inspiration and spiritually imparted knowledge, and in favour of materialist epistemologies, see Richard W. F. Kroll, The Material World: Literate Culture in the Restoration and Early Eighteenth Century (Baltimore, 1991).
On this point see, esp. Achinstein, Milton.
Milton, Paradise Lost, Book II, II. 250–62.
See Aschraft, Locke, pp. 44–61.
Ibid., p. 72.
For a recent attempt to sort through the thicket of argument see Gary DeKrey, ‘Rethinking the Restoration: Dissenting Cases for Conscience 1667–1672’ in Historical Journal, 38 (1995), 53–83.
‘Astraea Redux’ in John Dryden, Works (New York, 1961) I, p. 25.
See, esp., Pincus, Protestantism and Patriotism.
Ibid., pp. 198–248.
Ibid., pp. 256–65.
Ibid., pp. 259–66, 276–88, 302–10. For Dryden, see Annabel Patterson, ‘“Crouching at home and cruel while abroad”: Restoration constructions of national and international character’ in Smuts (ed.), Stuart Court, esp. pp. 213–16.
Ibid.
Spurr, Restoration Church, pp. 222–3.
Nancy Maguire, ‘The duchess of Portsmouth: English royal consort and French politician, 1670–85’, ibid., pp. 247–73.
Ibid., pp. 250–6.
Pincus, Protestantism and Patriotism, p. 393.
Schwoerer, No Standing Armies!.
An example is discussed in Anne Barbeau Gardiner, ‘Swift on the Dutch East India Merchants: The Context of 1672–73 War Literature’ in Huntington Library Quarterly, 54 (1991), 236.
Pincus, Protestantism, pp. 351–9 and ‘Butterboxes to Wooden Shoes’.
J. F. Bosher, ‘The Franco-Catholic Danger, 1660–1715’ in Historical Journal, 37 (1994), 1–28.
The fullest and most up-to-date treatment is Knights, Politics and Opinion.
J. R. Jones, The First Whigs (1961).
Jones, First Whigs’, Scott, Sidney and the Restoration Crisis, p. 21; Knights, Politics, pp. 33–43.
Ibid., pp. 110–11.
Ibid., pp. 106, 259–91, 314–16.
Ibid., p. 157.
Ibid., pp. 157, 168–72.
Ibid., p. 129. Cf. Tim Harris, ‘The Parties and the People: the Press, the Crowd and Politics “Out-of-doors” in Restoration England’ in Glassey (ed.), Charles II and James VII & II pp. 125–51.
Harris, London Crowds, p. 101.
Sommerville, News Revolution, p. 88; Knights, Politics, p. 173.
Hume, English Drama, pp. 223, 336.
Harris, London Crowds, p. 93.
Ibid., pp. 104–6. For College see B. J. Rahn, ‘A Ra-ree Show - a Rare Cartoon: Revolutionary Propaganda in the Treason Trial of Stephen College’ in Paul Korshin (ed.), Studies in Change and Revolution (1972).
Ashcraft, Locke, p. 167.
Harris, London Crowds, p. 110.
See, in particular, Ashcraft, Locke, pp. 195–206.
Harris, London Crowds, p. 111. Cf. Ashcraft, Locke, pp. 195–6.
Ibid., p. 139–41.
Harris, London Crowds, pp. 119–20.
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© 1999 R. Malcolm Smuts
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Smuts, R.M. (1999). From Civil War to Tory Reaction. In: Culture and Power in England, 1585–1685. Social History in Perspective. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27669-1_3
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