Abstract
The noradrenergic innervation of the cerebral cortex, including both the neocortex (Moore and Card, 1984) and the hippocampus (Loy et al., 1980), appears to originate exclusively in the locus coeruleus (LC), a small nucleus in the pons. The release of noradrenaline (NA) in the cerebral cortex, and its ensuing actions, should therefore be governed by activity of the LC neurons, with the qualifications that NA might be releasable from axonal varicosities in the absence of action potentials, and that release of this transmitter may be modulated by several other neurotransmit–ters and biologically active substances (Weiner, 1979). An understanding of the control of activity of LC neurons might, then, provide some insight into the role of noradrenergic neurotransmission in the cerebral cortex, and in other areas. It is our purpose, therefore, to briefly review the factors which influence LC neuronal activity, including afferent pathways, neurotransmitters, and intrin–sic activity. For the analysis of some of these factors, we will refer particularly to our recent work using intracellularly recorded LC neurons grown in explant cultures.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aghajanian, G. K., and Wang, Y.-Y., 1986, Pertussis toxin blocks outward currents evoked by opiate and α2-agonists in locus coeruleus neurons, Brain Res. 371:390–394.
Aghajanian, G. K., Cedarbaum, J. M., and Wang, R. Y., 1977, Evidence for norepinephrine-mediated collateral inhibition of locus coeruleus neurons, Brain Res. 136:570–577.
Aghajanian, G. K., Vandermaelen, CP., and Andrade, R., 1983, Intracellular studies on the role of calcium in regulating the activity and reactivity of locus coeruleus neurons in vivo, Brain Res. 273:237–243.
Akaike, T., 1982, Periodic bursting activities of locus coeruleus neurons in the rat, Brain Res. 239:629–633.
Albanese, A., and Butcher, A. L., 1980, Acetylcholinesterase and catecholamine distribution in the locus coeruleus of the rat, Brain Res. Bull. 5:127–134.
Amaral, D. G., and Sinnamon, H. M., 1977, The locus coeruleus: Neurobiology of a central noradrenergic nucleus, Prog. Neurobiol. 9:147–196.
Andrade, R., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1984a, Locus coeruleus activity in vitro: Intrinsic regulation by a calcium-dependent potassium conductance but not α2-adrenoceptors, J. Neurosci. 4:161–170.
Andrade, R., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1984b, Intrinsic regulation of locus coeruleus neurons: Electrophysiological evidence indicating a predominant role for autoinhibition, Brain Res. 310:401–406.
Andrade, R., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1985, Opiate- and α2-adrenoceptor-induced hyperpolarizations of locus coeruleus neurons in brain slices: Reversal by cyclic adenosine 3′:5′-monophosphate analogues, J. Neurosci. 5:2359–2364.
Aston-Jones, G., and Bloom, F. E., 1981a, Activity of norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats anticipates fluctuations in the sleep-waking cycle, J. Neurosci. 1:876–886.
Aston-Jones, G., and Bloom, F. E., 1981b, Norepinephrine-containing locus coeruleus neurons in behaving rats exhibit pronounced responses to non–noxious environmental stimuli, J. Neurosci. 1:887–900.
Aston-Jones, G., Segal, M., and Bloom, F. E., 1980, Brain aminergic axons exhibit marked variability in conduction velocity, Brain Res. 195:215–222.
Aston-Jones, G., Ennis, M., Nickell, W. T., and Shipley, M. T., 1985, The nucleus locus coeruleus: Extensive efferents but restricted afferents as revealed by transport of discretely injected peroxidase-labelled wheat germ agglutinin, Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 11:829.
Atweh, S. F., and Kuhar, M. J., 1977, Autoradiographic localization of opiate receptors in rat brain. II. The brain stem, Brain Res. 129:1–12.
Bobillier, P., Lewis, B. D., Seguin, S., and Pujol, J. F., 1978, Evidence for direct anatomical connections between the raphe system and other aminergic groups of the central nervous system as revealed by autoradiography, in: Interactions between Putative neurotransmitters in the Brain (S. Garattini, J. F. Pujol, and R. Samanin, eds.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 343–354.
Brownstein, M. J., Palkovits, M., Saavedra, J. M., and Kizer, J. S., 1975, Tryptophan hydroxylase in the rat brain, Brain Res. 97:163–166.
Caffe, A. R., van Leuwen, F. W., Buijs, R. M., de Vries G. J., and Geffard, M., 1985, Coexistence of vasopressin, neurophysin and noradrenaline immunoreactivity in medium-ized cells of the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus in the rat, Brain Res. 338:160–164.
Cedarbaum, J. M., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1976, Noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus: Inhibition of epinephrine and activation by the α-antagonist piperoxane, Brain Res. 112:413–419.
Cedarbaum, J. M., and Aghajanian, G., 1977, Catecholamine receptors on locus coeruleus neurons: Pharmacological characterization, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 44:375–385.
Cedarbaum, J. M., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1978a, Activation of locus coeruleus neurons by peripheral stimuli: Modulation by a collateral inhibitory mechanism, Life Sci. 23:1383–1392.
Cedarbaum, J. M., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1978b, Afferent projections to the rat locus coeruleus as determined by a retrograde tracing technique, J. Comp. Neurol. 178:1–16.
Charnay, Y., Léger, L., Dray, F., Berod, A., Jouvet, M., Pujol, J. F., and Dubois, P. M., 1982, Evidence for the presence of enkephalin in catecholaminergic neurones of cat locus coeruleus, Neurosci. Lett. 30:147–151.
Cheeseman, H. J., Pinnock, R. D., and Henderson, G., 1983, Substance P excitation of rat locus coeruleus neurones, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 94:93–99.
Cheney, D. L., LeFevre, H. F., and Racagni, G., 1975, Choline acetyltransferase activity and mass fragmen- tographic measurement of acetylcholine in specific nuclei and tracts of rat brain, Neuropharmacology 14:801–809.
Cimarusti, D. L., Saito, K., Vaughn, J. E., Barber, R., Roberts, E., and Thomas, P. E., 1979, Immunohistochemical localization of dopamine-ß-hydroxylase in rat locus coeruleus and hypothalamus, Brain Res. 162:55–67.
Clavier, R. M., 1979, Afferent projections to the self-stimulation regions of the dorsal pons, including the locus coeruleus, in the rat as demonstrated by the horseradish peroxidase technique, Brain Res. Bull. 4:497–504.
Cole, A. E., and Nicoll, R. A., 1984, Characterization of a slow cholinergic post-synaptic potential recorded in vitro from rat hippocampal pyramidal cells, J. Physiol. (London) 352:173–188.
Conrad, L. C. A., Leonard, C. M., and Pfaff, D. W., 1974, Connections of the median and dorsal raphe nuclei in the rat: An autoradiographic and degeneration study, J. Comp. Neurol. 156:129–206.
Dahlström, A., and Fuxe, K., 1964, Evidence for the existence of monoamine–containing neurons in the central nervous system. I. Demonstration of monoamines in the cell body of brain stem neurons, Acta Physiol. Scand. 62(Suppl. 232): 1–55.
Egan, T. M., and North, R. A., 1985, Acetylcholine acts on m2-muscarinic receptors to excite rat locus coeruleus neurones, Br. J. Pharmacol. 85:733–735.
Egan, T. M., Henderson, G., North, R. A., and Williams, J. T., 1983, Noradrenaline-mediated synaptic inhibition in rat locus coeruleus neurones, J. Physiol. (London) 345:477–488.
Elam, M., Thoren, P., and Svensson, T. H., 1986, Locus coeruleus neurons and sympathetic nerves: Activation by visceral afferents, Brain Res. 375:117–125.
Ennis, M., and Aston-Jones, G., 1986, Evidence for self- and neighbor-mediated postactivation inhibition of locus coeruleus neurons, Brain Res. 374:299–305.
Everitt, B. J., Hökfelt, T., Terenius, L., Tatemoto, K., Mutt, V., and Goldstein, M., 1984, Differential coexistence of neuropeptide Y (NPY)-like immunoreactivity with catecholamines in the central nervous system of the rat, Neuroscience 11:443–462.
Feiten, D. L., Hallman, H., and Jonsson, G., 1982, Evidence for a neurotrophic role of noradrenaline neurons in the postnatal development of rat cerebral cortex, J. Neurocytol. 11:119–135.
Finlayson, P. G., and Marshall, K. C., 1984, Hyperpolarizing and age-dependent depolarizing responses of cultured locus coeruleus neurons to noradrenaline, Dev. Brain Res. 15:167–175.
Finlayson, P. G., and Marshall, K. C., 1985, Synchronous bursting of locus coeruleus neurons in tissue culture: A common excitatory input or electrotonic coupling of neurons? Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 11:1081.
Finlayson, P. G., and Marshall, K. C., 1986, Locus coeruleus neurons in culture have a developmentally transient α1-adrenergic response, Dev. Brain Res. 25:292–295.
Finley, J. C. W., Maderbrut, J. L., Roger, L. J., and Petrusz, P., 1981, The immunocytochemical localization of somatostatin-containing neurons in the rat central nervous system, Neuroscience 6:2173–2192.
Foote, S. L., Aston-Jones, G., and Bloom, F. E., 1980, Impulse activity of locus coeruleus neurons in awake rats and monkeys is a function of sensory stimulation and arousal, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:3033–3037.
Foote, S. L., Bloom, F. E., and Aston-Jones, G., 1983, Nucleus locus coeruleus: New evidence of anatomical and physiological specificity, Physiol. Rev. 63:844–914.
Fuxe, K., Ganten, D., Hökfelt, T., and Bolme, P., 1976, Immunohistochemical evidence for the existence of angiotensin II-containing nerve terminals in the brain and spinal cord of rat, Neurosci. Lett. 2:229–234.
Fuxe, K., Hökfelt, T., Agnati, L. F., Johansson, M., Goldstein, M., Perez de la Mora, M., Passanti, L., Tapia, R., Teran, L., and Palacios, J., 1978, Mapping out central catecholamine neurons: Immunohistochemical studies on catecholamine-synthesizing enzymes, in: Psychopharmacology: A Generation of Progress (M. A. Lipton, A. DiMascio, and K. F. Killam, eds.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 67–95.
Grant, S. J., and Redmond, D. E., Jr., 1981, The neuroanatomy and pharmacology of the nucleus locus coeruleus, in: Psychopharmacology of Clonidine (H. Lai and S. Fielding, eds.), Liss, New York, pp. 5–27.
Groves, P. M., and Wilson, C. J., 1980a, Fine structure of rat locus coeruleus, J. Comp. Neurol. 193:841–852.
Groves, P. M., and Wilson, C. J., 1980b, Monoaminergic presynaptic axons and dendrites in rat locus coeruleus seen in reconstructions of serial sections, J. Comp. Neurol. 193:853–862.
Grzanna, R., and Molliver, M. E., 1980, The locus coeruleus in the rat: An histochemical delineation, Neuroscience 5:21–40.
Guyenet, P., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1977, Excitation of neurons in the nucleus locus coeruleus by substance P and related peptides, Brain Res. 136:178–184.
Guyenet, P., and Aghajanian, G., 1979, ACh, substance P and met-enkephalin in the locus coeruleus: Pharmacological evidence for independent sites of action, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 53:319–328.
Haas, H. L., and Konnerth, A., 1983, Histamine and noradrenaline decrease calcium-activated potassium conductance in hippocampal pyramidal cells, Nature 302:432–434.
Hendelman, W. J., Marshall, K. C., Ferguson, R., and Carrière, S., 1982, Catecholamine neurons of the central nervous system in organotypic culture, Dev. Neurosci. 5:64–76.
Henderson, G., Pepper, C. M., and Shefner, S. A., 1982, Electrophysiological properties of neurones contained in the locus coeruleus and mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve in vitro, Exp. Brain Res. 45:29–37.
Hökfelt, T., Fuxe, K., Goldstein, M., and Johansson, O., 1974, Immunohistochemical evidence for the existence of adrenaline neurons in the rat brain, Brain Res. 66:255–257.
Jacobs, B. L., 1986, Single unit activity of locus coeruleus neurons in behaving animals, Prog. Neurobiol. 27:183–194.
Jones, L. S., Gauger, L. L., and Davis, J. N., 1985a, Anatomy of brain alpha1-adrenergic receptors: In vitro autoradiography with [125I]–HEAT, J. Comp. Neurol. 231:190–208.
Jones, L. S., Gauger, L. L., Davis, J. N., Slotkin, T. A., and Bartolome, J. V., 1985b, Postnatal development of brain alpha1-adrenergic receptors: In vitro autoradiography with [125I]Heat in normal rats and rats treated with alphadifluoromethylornithine, a specific, irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase, Neuroscience 15:1195–1202.
Khachaturian, H., Lewis, M. E., and Watson, S. J., 1983, Enkephalin systems in diencephalon and brainstem of the rat, J. Comp. Neurol. 220:10–320.
Kimura, F., and Nakamura, S., 1985, Locus coeruleus neurons in the neonatal rat: Electrical activity and responses to sensory stimulation, Dev. Brain Res. 23:301–305.
Kobayashi, R. M., Brownstein, M., Saavedra, J. M., and Palkovits, M., 1975, Choline acetyltransferase content in discrete regions of the rat brain stem, J. Neurochem. 24:637–640.
Korf, J., Bunney, B. S., and Aghajanian, G. K., 1974, Noradrenergic neurons: Morphine inhibition of spontaneous activity, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 25:165–169.
Koslow, S. H., and Schlumpf, M., 1974, Quantitation of adrenaline in rat brain nuclei and areas by mass fragmentography, Nature 251:530–531.
Legér, L., and Descarries, L., 1978, Serotonin nerve terminals in the locus coeruleus of adult rat: A radioautographic study, Brain Res. 145:1–13.
Leroux, P., Quirion, R., and Pelletier, G., 1985, Localization and characterization of brain somatostatin receptors as studied with somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28 receptor radioautography, Brain Res. 347:74–84.
Ljungdahl, Å, Hökfelt, T., and Nilsson, G., 1978, Distribution of substance P-like immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the rat. I. Cell bodies and nerve terminals, Neuroscience 3:861–943.
Loy, R., Koziell, D. A., Lindsey, J. D., and Moore, R. Y., 1980, Noradrenergic innervation of the adult rat hippocampal formation, J. Comp. Neurol. 189:699–710.
Lundberg, J. M., Rudehill, A., Sollevi, A., Theodorsson-Norheim, E., and Hamberger, B., 1986, Frequency- and reserpine-dependent chemical coding of sympathetic transmission: Differential release of noradrenaline and neuropeptide Y from pig spleen, Neurosci. Lett. 63:96–100.
McRae-Degueurce, A., and Milon, H., 1983, Serotonin and dopamine afferents to the rat locus coeruleus: A biochemical study after lesioning of the ventral mesencephalic tegmental-A10 region and the raphe dorsalis, Brain Res. 263:344–347.
Madison, D. V., and Nicoll, R. A., 1986, Actions of noradrenaline recorded intracellularly in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurones, in vitro, J. Physiol. (London) 372:221–244.
Marshall, K. C., and Williams, J. T., 1986, Rhythmic activity and adrenergic responses in locus coeruleus neurons from young rats, Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 12:1390.
Marshall, K. C., Garber, C. B., and Finlayson, P. G., 1984, Noradrenergic actions of Purkinje and locus coeruleus neurons in culture, Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 8:515–520.
Meibach, R. C., 1984, Serotonergic receptors, in: Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy, Vol. 3 (A. Björklund, T. Hökfelt, and M. J. Kuhar, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 304–324.
Melander, T., Hökfelt, T., and Rökaeus, A., 1986, Distribution of galaninlike immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system, J. Comp. Neurol. 248:475–517.
Mendelsohn, F. A. O., Quirion, R., Saavedra, J. M., Aguilera, G., and Catt, K., 1984, Autoradiographic localization of angiotensin II receptors in rat brain, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:1575–1579.
Merchenthaler, I., 1984, Corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF)-like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system, extrahypothalamic distribution, Peptides 5(Suppl. l):53–69.
Moore, R. Y., and Bloom, F. E., 1979, Central catecholamine neuron systems: Anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems, Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2:113–168.
Moore, R. Y., and Card, J. P., 1984, Noradrenaline–containing neuron systems, in: Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy, Vol. 2 (A. Björklund and T. Hökfelt, eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 123–156.
Morgane, P. J., and Jacobs, M. S., 1979, Raphe projections to the locus coeruleus in the rat, Brain Res. Bull. 4:519–534.
Morley, B. J., 1985, The localization and origin of somatostatin-containing fibers in an auditory brainstem nucleus, Peptides 6(Suppl. 1):165–172.
Nakamura, S., and Iwama, K., 1975, Antidromic activation of the rat locus coeruleus neurons from hippocampus, cerebral and cerebellar cortices, Brain Res. 99:372–376.
Nakamura, S., Tsai, C, and Iwama, K., 1980, Recurrent facilitation of locus coeruleus neurons of the rat, in: The Reticular Formation Revisited (J. A. Hobson and M. A. B. Brazier, eds.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 303–315.
North, R. A., and Williams, J. T., 1983, ÎĽ-Type opiate receptors on single locus coeruleus neurones, Br. J. Pharmacol. 79:423P.
North, R. A., and Williams, J. T., 1985, On the potassium conductance increased by opioids in rat locus coeruleus neurones, J. Physiol. (London) 364:265–280.
Olpe, H. R., and Baltzer, V., 1981, Vasopressin activates noradrenergic neurons in the rat locus coeruleus: A microiontophoretic investigation, Eur. J. Pharmacol. 73:377–378.
Olpe, H. R., and Jones, R. S. G., 1982, Excitatory effects of ACTH on noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus of the rat, Brain Res. 251:177–179.
Palacios, J. M., Wamsley, J. K., and Kuhar, M. J., 1981, The distribution of histamine H1-receptors in the rat brain: An autoradiographic study, Neuroscience 6:15–37.
Palkovits, M., and Brownstein, M. J., 1983, Locus coeruleus, Adv. Cell. Neurobiol. 4:81–103.
Palkovits, M., Brownstein, M., and Saavedra, J. M., 1974, Serotonin content of the brain stem nuclei in the rat, Brain Res. 80:237–249.
Pepper, C, and Henderson, G., 1980, Opiates and opioid peptides hyperpolarize locus coeruleus neurones in vitro, Science 209:394–396.
Pickel, V. M., Joh, T. H., and Reis, D. J., 1977, A serotonergic innervation of noradrenergic neurons in nucleus locus coeruleus: Demonstration by immunocytochemical localization of the transmitter specific enzymes tyrosine and tryptophan hydroxylase, Brain Res. 131:197–214.
Pickel, V. M., Joh, T. H., Reis, D. J., Leeman, S. E., and Miller, R. J., 1979, Electron microscopic localization of substance P and enkephalin in axon terminals related to dendrites of catecholaminergic neurons, Brain Res. 160:387–400.
Quirion, R., Zajac, J. M., Morgat, J. L., and Roques, B. P., 1983, Autoradiographic distribution of mu and delta opiate receptors in rat brain using highly selective ligands, Life Sci. 33(Suppl. I):227–230.
Quirion, R., Dalpe, M., DeLean, A., Gutkowska, J., Cantin, M., and Genest, J., 1984, Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) binding sites in brain and related structures, Peptides 5:1167–1172.
Robain, O., Lanfumey, L., Adrien, J., and Farkas, E., 1985, Developmental changes in the cerebellar cortex after locus coeruleus lesion with 6-hydroxydopamine in the rat, Exp. Neurol. 88:150–164.
Rotter, A., Birdsall, N. J. M., Field, P. M., and Raisman, G., 1979, Muscarinic receptors in the central nervous system of the rat. II. Distribution of binding of [3H]propylbenzilylcholine mustard in the midbrain and hindbrain, Brain Res. Rev. 1:167–183.
Saavedra, J. M., Brownstein, M. J., and Palkovits, M., 1976, Distribution of catechol-0-methyltransferase, histamine-N-methyltransferase and monoamine oxidase in specific areas of the rat brain, Brain Res. 118:152–156.
Sar, M., Stumpf, W. E., Miller, R. J., Chang, K. J., and Cuatrecasas, P., 1978, Immunohistochemical localization of enkephalin in rat brain and spinal cord, J. Comp. Neurol. 182:17–38.
Sawchenko, P. E., and Gerfen, C. R., 1985, Plant lectins and bacterial toxins as tools for tracing neuronal connections, Trends Neurosci. 8:378–384.
Segal, M., 1979, Serotonergic innervation of the locus coeruleus from the dorsal raphe and its action on responses to noxious stimuli, J. Physiol. (London) 286:401–415.
Shaffer, M. M., and Moody, T. W., 1986, Autoradiographic visualization of CNS receptors for vasoactive intestinal peptide, Peptides 7:283–288.
Shefher, S. A., and Chiu, T. H., 1986, Adenosine inhibits locus coeruleus neurons: An intracellular study in a rat brain slice preparation, Brain Res. 366:364–368.
Shimizu, N., Katoh, Y., Hida, T., and Satoh, K., 1979, The fine structural organization of the locus coeruleus in the rat with special reference to noradrenaline contents, Exp. Brain Res. 37:109–148.
Shults, C. W., Quirion, R., Chronwall, B., Chase, T. N., and O’Donohue, T. L., 1984, A comparison of the anatomical distribution of substance P and substance P receptors in the rat central nervous system, Peptides 5:1097–1128.
Simon, H., Le Moal, M., Stinus, L., and Calas, A., 1979, Anatomical relationships between the ventral mesencephalic tegmentum-A10 region and the locus coeruleus as demonstrated by anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques, J. Neural Transm. 44:77–86.
Sofroniew, M. V., 1985, Vasopressin- and neurophysin-immunoreactive neurons in the septal region, medial amygdala and locus coeruleus in colchicine-treated rats, Neuroscience 15:347–358.
Steinbusch, H. W. M., 1981, Distribution of serotonin-immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the rat— Cell bodies and terminals, Neuroscience 6:557–618.
Steindler, D. A., 1981, Locus coeruleus neurons have axons that branch to the forebrain and cerebellum, Brain Res. 223:367–373.
Swanson, L. W., 1976, The locus coeruleus: A cytoarchitectonic Golgi and immunohistochemical study in the albino rat, Brain Res. 110:39–56.
Swanson, L. W., and Hartman, B.K., 1975, The central adrenergic system: An immunofluorescence study of the location of cell bodies and their efferent connections in the rat utilizing dopamine-ß-hydroxylase as a marker, J. Comp. Neurol. 163:467–506.
Swanson, L. W., Sawchenko, P. E., Rivier, J., and Vale, W. W., 1983, Organization of ovine corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: An immunohistochemical study, Neuroen-docrinology 36:165–186.
Takigawa, M., and Mogenson, G. J., 1977, A study of inputs to antidromically identified neurons of the locus coeruleus, Brain Res. 135:217–230.
Uhl, G., Goodman, R. R., and Snyder, S. H., 1979, Neurotensin-containing cell bodies, fibers and nerve terminals in the brain stem of the rat: Immunohistochemical mapping, Brain Res. 167:77–91.
Valentino, R. J., Foote, S. L., and Aston-Jones, G., 1983, Corticotropin-releasing factor activates noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus, Brain Res. 270:363–367.
Vanderhaeghen, J. J., Lotstra, E., DeMay, J., and Gilles, C, 1980, Immunohistochemical localization of cholecystokinin-and gastrin-like peptides in the brain and hypophysis of the rat, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:1190–1194.
Van Dijk, A., Richards, J. G., Trzeciak, A., Gillessen, D., and Möhler, H., 1984, Cholecystokinin receptors: Biochemical demonstration and autoradiographic localization in the rat brain and pancreas using 3H-cholecystokinin as radioligand, J. Neurosci. 4:1021–1033.
Wainer, B. H., Levey, A. I., Mufson, E. J., and Mesulam, M.-M., 1984, Cholinergic systems in mammalian brain identified with antibodies against choline acetyltransferase, Neurochem. Int. 6:163–182.
Watson, S. J., and Barchas, J. D., and Li, C. H., 1977, ß-Lipotropin: Localization of cells and axons in rat brain by immunohistochemistry, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74:5155–5158.
Watson, S. J., Richard, C. W., Ill, and Barchas, J. C., 1978, Adrenocorticotropin in rat brain: Immunocytochemical localization in cells and axons, Science 200:1180–1182.
Weiner, N., 1979, Multiple factors regulating the release of norepinephrine consequent to nerve stimulation, Fed. Proc. 38:2193–2202.
Williams, J. T., North, R. A., Shefner, S. A., Nishi, S., and Egan, T. M., 1984, Membrane properties of rat locus coeruleus neurones, Neuroscience 13:137–156.
Williams, J. T., Henderson, G., and North, R. A., 1985, Characterization of α2-adrenoceptors which increase potassium conductance in rat locus coeruleus neurones, Neuroscience 14:95–101.
Wynn, P. C., Hauger, R. L., Holmes, M. C., Millan, M. A., Catt, K. J., and Aguilera, G., 1984, Brain and pituitary receptors for corticotropin releasing factor: Localization and differential regulation after adrenalectomy, Peptides 5:1077–1084.
Yarom, Y., and Spira, M. E., 1982, Extracellular potassium ions mediate specific neuronal interaction, Science 216:80–82.
Young, W. S., Ill, and Kuhar, M. J., 1980, Noradrenergic alpha 1 and alpha 2 receptors: Light microscopic autoradiographic localization, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:1696–1700.
Young, W. S., III, Uhl, G. R., and Kuhar, M. J., 1978, Iontophoresis of neurotensin in the area of the locuscoeruleus, Brain Res. 150:431–435.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1988 Plenum Press, New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Marshall, K.C., Finlayson, P.G. (1988). Synaptic Regulation of Locus Coeruleus Neuronal Activity. In: Avoli, M., Reader, T.A., Dykes, R.W., Gloor, P. (eds) Neurotransmitters and Cortical Function. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0925-3_24
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0925-3_24
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-8248-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-0925-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive