Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Revolution or Evolution? What Can Approaches Based on the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs Contribute to HIV Prevention in Gay Communities in High-Income Countries?

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biomedical Advances in HIV Prevention

Abstract

At the same time that HIV infections are going down globally, HIV epidemics among gay men and other men who have sex with men (GMSM) continue unabated. There is a clear need to strengthen and reinvigorate HIV prevention for GMSM, and approaches exploring the potential of antiretroviral drugs for prevention and prophylaxis are heralded as “game changers.” In many high-income countries, uptake of effective antiretroviral therapy among people with HIV is however already high and much of the impact of treatment-as-prevention may have been achieved. In these settings, the prevention benefits of antiretroviral drug use have likely been offset by concomitant increases in sexual risk behavior among GMSM. Also, any impact of HIV prevention approaches based on antiretroviral drugs critically depends on their appropriate and sustained use. Rather than mitigating reliance on behavioral interventions, an analysis of the potential of antiretroviral drugs-based approaches serves as a reminder of the breadth and depth of the behavioral factors that remain to be effectively addressed for HIV prevention to be successful. An evolution of coordinated HIV prevention approaches that make optimal use of available theory and evidence is the best option to achieve the long-awaited reduction in new HIV infections among GMSM.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Padian NS, McCoy SI, Karim SS, Hasen N, Kim J, Bartos M, et al. HIV prevention transformed: the new prevention research agenda. Lancet. 2011;378:269–78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Padian NS, Isbell MT, Russell ES, Essex M. The future of HIV prevention. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60 Suppl 2:S22–6.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Baeten J, Celum C. Systemic and topical drugs for the prevention of HIV infection: antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis. Annu Rev Med. 2013;64:219–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Granich RM, Gilks CF, Dye C, De Cock KM, Williams BG. Universal voluntary HIV testing with immediate antiretroviral therapy as a strategy for elimination of HIV transmission: a mathematical model. Lancet. 2009;373:48–57.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Clinton HR. Remarks on creating an AIDS free generation. Speech presented at the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD; 8 Nov 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Sidibé M. Antiretrovirals for prevention: realizing the potential. Curr HIV Res. 2011;9:470–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. United Nations General Assembly. Political declaration on HIV and AIDS: intensifying our efforts to eliminate HIV and AIDS. Resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly, 10 June 2011, A/RES/65/277. New York: UN General Assembly; 2011. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol = A/RES/65/277. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  8. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Global report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2012. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2012. http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2012/gr2012/20121120_UNAIDS_Global_Report_2012_en.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  9. Beyrer C, Baral SD, van Griensven F, Goodreau SM, Chariyalertsak S, Wirtz AL, et al. Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. Lancet. 2012;380:367–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Jansen IA, Geskus RB, Davidovich U, Jurriaans S, Coutinho RA, Prins M, et al. Ongoing HIV-1 transmission among men who have sex with men in Amsterdam: a 25-year prospective cohort study. AIDS. 2011;25:493–501.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kirby Institute. HIV, viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia Annual Surveillance Report 2012. Sydney: Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Prejean J, Song R, Hernandez A, Ziebell R, Green T, Walker F, et al. Estimated HIV incidence in the United States, 2006–2009. PLoS One. 2011;6:e17502.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Sullivan PS, Hamouda O, Delpech V, Geduld JE, Prejean J, Semaille C, et al. Reemergence of the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men in North America, Western Europe, and Australia, 1996–2005. Ann Epidemiol. 2009;19:423–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Adam PCG, de Wit JBF, Toskin I, Mathers BM, Nashkhoev M, Zablotska I, et al. Estimating levels of HIV testing, HIV prevention coverage, HIV knowledge, and condom use among men who have sex with men (MSM) in low-income and middle-income countries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52 Suppl 2:S143–15.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Van Griensven F, Thienkrua W, McNicholl J, Wimonsate W, Chaikummao S, Chonwattana W, et al. Evidence of an explosive epidemic of HIV infection in a cohort of men who have sex with men in Bangkok, Thailand. AIDS. 2013;27:825–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Golub SA, Operario D, Gorbach PM. Pre-exposure prophylaxis state of the science: empirical analogies for research and implementation. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2010;7:201–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Sidibé M, Buse K. Fomenting a prevention revolution for HIV. Lancet. 2010;375:533–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Buchbinder SP, Liu A. Pre-exposure prophylaxis and the promise of combination prevention approaches. AIDS Behav. 2011;15 Suppl 1:S72–9.

    Google Scholar 

  19. HIV Modelling Consortium Treatment as Prevention Editorial Writing Group. HIV treatment as prevention: models, data, and questions–towards evidence-based decision-making. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001259.

    Google Scholar 

  20. De Wit JBF, Aggleton P, Myers T, Crewe M. The rapidly changing paradigm of HIV prevention: time to strengthen social and behavioural approaches. Health Educ Res. 2011;26:381–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet. 2008;372:293–9.

    Google Scholar 

  22. World Health Organization (WHO), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Gobal HIV/AIDS response: epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access—progress report 2011. Geneva: WHO; 2010. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241502986_eng.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  23. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). Countdown to zero: Global plan towards the elimination of new HIV infections among children by 2015 and keeping their mothers alive 2011–2015. Geneva: UNAIDS; 2011. http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/20110609_JC2137_Global-Plan-Elimination-HIV-Children_en.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  24. World Health Organization (WHO). Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents. Recommendations for a public health approach: 2010 revision. Geneva: WHO; 2010. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599764_eng.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  25. Le T, Wright EJ, Smith DM, He W, Catano G, Okulicz JF, et al. Enhanced CD4 + T-cell recovery with earlier HIV-1 antiretroviral therapy. New Eng J Med. 2013;368:218–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services; 2013 [updated 2013 Feb 12]. http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  27. Schwartländer B, Stover J, Hallett T, Atun R, Avila C, Gouws E, et al. Towards an improved investment approach for an effective response to HIV/AIDS. Lancet. 2011;377:2031–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Horton R, Das P. Putting prevention at the forefront of HIV/AIDS. Lancet. 2008;372:421–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Coates TJ, Richter L, Caceres C. Behavioural strategies to reduce HIV transmission: how to make them work better. Lancet. 2008;372:669–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Piot P, Bartos M, Larson H, Zewdie D, Mane P. Coming to terms with complexity: a call to action for HIV prevention. Lancet. 2008;372:845–59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Green L, Kreuter M. Health program planning: an educational and ecological approach. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Dahlgren G, Whitehead M. Policies and strategies to promote social equity in health. Stockholm: Institute for Future Studies; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Hayes R, Kapiga S, Padian N, McCormack S, Wasserheit J. HIV prevention research: taking stock and the way forward. AIDS. 2010;24 Suppl 4:S81–92.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Rao Gupta G, Parkhurst JO, Ogden JA, Aggleton P, Mahal A. Structural approaches to HIV prevention. Lancet. 2008;372:764–75.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Padian NS, Buvé A, Balkus J, Serwadda D, Cates W. Biomedical interventions to prevent HIV infection: evidence, challenges, and way forward. Lancet. 2008;372:585–99.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Padian NS, McCoy SI, Balkus JE, Wasserheit JN. Weighing the gold in the gold standard: challenges in HIV prevention research. AIDS. 2010;24:621–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G, Reed JB, Herbst JH. Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300:1674–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Londish GJ, Templeton DJ, Regan DG, Kaldor JM, Murray JM. Minimal impact of circumcision on HIV acquisition in men who have sex with men. Sex Health. 2010;7:463–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Templeton DJ, Millett GA, Grulich AE. Male circumcision to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men. Curr Opin in Infect Dis. 2010;23:45–52.

    Google Scholar 

  40. McDaid LM, Hart GJ. Serosorting and strategic positioning during unprotected anal intercourse: are risk reduction strategies being employed by gay and bisexual men in Scotland? Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:735–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Tolle MA, Schwarzwald HL. Postexposure prophylaxis against human immunodeficiency virus. Am Fam Physician. 2010;82:161–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Baeten J, Celum C. Oral antiretroviral chemoprophylaxis: current status. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:514–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Baeten JM, Donnell D, Ndase P, Mugo NR, Campbell JD, Wangisi J, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV prevention in heterosexual men and women. New Eng J Med. 2012;367:399–410.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, McMahan V, Liu AY, Vargas L, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. New Eng J Med. 2010;363:2587–99.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Thigpen MC, Kebaabetswe PM, Paxton LA, Smith DK, Rose CE, Segolodi TM, et al. Antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for heterosexual HIV transmission in Botswana. New Eng J Med. 2012;367:423–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Abdool Karim Q, Abdool Karim SS, Frohlich JA, Grobler AC, Baxter C, Mansoor LE, et al. Effectiveness and safety of tenofovir gel, an antiretroviral microbicide, for the prevention of HIV infection in women. Science. 2010;329:1168–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Choopanya K, Martin M, Suntharasamai P, Sangkum U, Mock PA, Leethochawalit M, et al. Antiretroviral prophylaxis for HIV infection in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand (the Bangkok Tenofovir Study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2013;381:2083–90.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. New Eng J Med. 2011;365:493–505.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Van Damme L, Corneli A, Ahmed K, Agot K, Lombaard J, Kapiga S, et al. Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women. New Eng J Med. 2012;367:411–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Marrazzo J, Ramjee G, Nair G, Palanee T, Mkhize B, Nakabiito C, et al. Pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV in women: daily oral tenofovir, oral tenofovir/emtricitabine, or vaginal tenofovir gel in the VOICE Study (MTN 003). Paper presented at the 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, 3–6 Mar 2013, Atlanta, GA (Abstract #26LB).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Baral S, Sifakis F, Cleghorn F, Beyrer C. Elevated risk for HIV infection among men who have sex with men in low- and middle-income countries 2000–2006: a systematic review. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e339.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Cáceres CF, Aggleton P, Galea JT. Sexual diversity, social inclusion and HIV/AIDS. AIDS. 2008;22 Suppl 2:S45–55.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Beyrer C, Sullivan PS, Sanchez J, Dowdy D, Altman D, Trapence G, et al. A call to action for comprehensive HIV services for men who have sex with men. Lancet. 2012;380:424–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance: preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in men who have sex with men. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2011;60:65–8.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim guidance for clinicians considering the use of preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in heterosexually active adults. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:586–9.

    Google Scholar 

  56. World Health Organization (WHO). Guidance on oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for serodiscordant couples, men and transgender women who have sex with men at high risk of HIV. Recommendations for use in the context of demonstration projects. Geneva: WHO; 2012. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/75188/1/9789241503884_eng.pdf. Accessed 5 Apr 2013.

  57. Das M, Chu PL, Santos GM, Scheer S, Vittinghoff E, McFarland W, et al. Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS One. 2010;5:e11068.

    Google Scholar 

  58. McGowan I. Rectal microbicide development. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:526–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Bekker LG, Glidden D, Hosek S, Brown B, Liu A, Amico R, et al. Pre-exposure prophylaxis in young men who have sex with men: Needs and challenges. Paper presented at the 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, 3–6 Mar 2013, Atlanta, GA (Abstract #997).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Poynten IM, Zablotska I, Grulich AE. Considerations regarding antiretroviral chemoprophylaxis in MSM. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:549–56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Desai K, Sansom SL, Ackers ML, Stewart SR, Hall HI, Hu DJ, et al. Modeling the impact of HIV chemoprophylaxis strategies among men who have sex with men in the United States: HIV infections prevented and cost-effectiveness. AIDS. 2008;22:1829–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Paltiel AD, Freedberg KA, Scott CA, Schackman BR, Losina E, Wang B, et al. HIV preexposure prophylaxis in the United States: impact on lifetime infection risk, clinical outcomes, and cost-effectiveness. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:806–15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Schackman BR, Eggman AA. Cost-effectiveness of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV: a review. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:587–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Juusola JL, Brandeau ML, Owens DK, Bendavid E. The cost-effectiveness of preexposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention in the United States in men who have sex with men. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:541–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Cremin I, Alsallaq R, Dybul M, Piot P, Garnett G, Hallett TB. The new role of antiretrovirals in combination HIV prevention: a mathematical modelling analysis. AIDS. 2013;27:447–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Montaner JS, Hogg R, Wood E, Kerr T, Tyndall M, Levy AR, et al. The case for expanding access to highly active antiretroviral therapy to curb the growth of the HIV epidemic. Lancet. 2006;368:531–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Cowan SA, Gerstoft J, Haff J, Christiansen AH, Nielsen J, Obel N. Stable incidence of HIV diagnoses among Danish MSM despite increased engagement in unsafe sex. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;61:106–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Phillips AN, Cambiano V, Nakagawa F, Brown AE, Lampe F, Rodger A, et al. Increased HIV incidence in men who have sex with men despite high levels of ART-induced viral suppression: analysis of an extensively documented epidemic. PLoS One. 2013;8:e55312.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Birrell PJ, Gill ON, Delpech VC, Brown AE, Desai S, Chadborn TR, et al. HIV incidence in men who have sex with men in England and Wales 2001–10: a nationwide population study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:312–8.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Blower SM, Gershengorn HB, Grant RM. A tale of two futures: HIV and antiretroviral therapy in San Francisco. Science. 2000;287:650–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Charlebois ED, Das M, Porco TC, Havlir DV. The effect of expanded antiretroviral treatment strategies on the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men in San Francisco. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:1046–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Sorensen SW, Sansom SL, Brooks JT, Marks G, Begier EM, Buchacz K, et al. A mathematical model of comprehensive test-and-treat services and HIV incidence among men who have sex with men in the United States. PLoS One. 2012;7:e29098.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Walensky RP, Paltiel AD, Losina E, Morris BL, Scott CA, Rhode ER, et al. Test and treat DC: forecasting the impact of a comprehensive HIV strategy in Washington DC. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:392–400.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Long EF, Brandeau ML, Owens DK. The cost-effectiveness and population outcomes of expanded HIV screening and antiretroviral treatment in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:778–89.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Dodd PJ, Garnett GP, Hallett TB. Examining the promise of HIV elimination by ’test and treat’ in hyperendemic settings. AIDS. 2010;24:729–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Cohen MS, Muessig KE, Smith MK, Powers KA, Kashuba AD. Antiviral agents and HIV prevention: controversies, conflicts, and consensus. AIDS. 2012;26:1585–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Williams B, Wood R, Dukay V, Delva W, Ginsburg D, Hargrove J, et al. Treatment as prevention: preparing the way. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14 Suppl 1:S6.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Muessig KE, Smith MK, Powers KA, Lo YR, Burns DN, Grulich AE, et al. Does ART prevent HIV transmission among MSM? AIDS. 2012;26:2267–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Cassell MM, Halperin DT, Shelton JD, Stanton D. Risk compensation: the Achilles’ heel of innovations in HIV prevention? BMJ. 2006;332:605–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Dilley JW, Woods WJ, McFarland W. Are advances in treatment changing views about high-risk sex? New Eng J Med. 1997;337:501–2.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Eaton LA, Kalichman S. Risk compensation in HIV prevention: implications for vaccines, microbicides, and other biomedical HIV prevention technologies. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2007;4:165–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Crepaz N, Hart TA, Marks G. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior: a meta-analytic review. JAMA. 2004;292:224–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Williams BG, Lima V, Gouws E. Modelling the impact of antiretroviral therapy on the epidemic of HIV. Curr HIV Res. 2011;9:367–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Liu AY, Vittinghoff E, Chillag K, Mayer K, Thompson M, Grohskopf L, et al. Sexual risk behavior among HIV-uninfected men who have sex with men (MSM) participating in a tenofovir pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) randomized trial in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. Epub 2013 Mar 11 (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  85. Hosek S, Siberry G, Bell M, Lally M, Kapogiannis B, Green K, et al. The acceptability and feasibility of an HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) trial with young men who have sex with men (YMSM). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:447–56.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Katz MH, Schwarcz SK, Kellogg TA, Klausner JD, Dilley JW, Gibson S, et al. Impact of highly active antiretroviral treatment on HIV seroincidence among men who have sex with men: San Francisco. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:388–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Law MG, Woolley I, Templeton DJ, Roth N, Chuah J, Mulhall B, et al. Trends in detectable viral load by calendar year in the Australian HIV observational database. J Int AIDS Soc. 2011;14:10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Bezemer D, de Wolf F, Boerlijst MC, van Sighem A, Hollingsworth TD, Prins M, et al. A resurgent HIV-1 epidemic among men who have sex with men in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2008;22:1071–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Van Sighem A, Vidondo B, Glass TR, Bucher HC, Vernazza P, Gebhardt M, et al. Resurgence of HIV infection among men who have sex with men in Switzerland: mathematical modelling study. PLoS One. 2012;7:e44819.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Jin F, Jansson J, Law M, Prestage GP, Zablotska I, Imrie JC, et al. Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART. AIDS. 2010;24:907–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Dukers NH, Goudsmit J, de Wit JBF, Prins M, Weverling GJ, Coutinho RA. Sexual risk behaviour relates to the virological and immunological improvements during highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1 infection. AIDS. 2001;15:369–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Van Sighem A, Jansen I, Bezemer D, de Wolf F, Prins M, Stolte I, et al. Increasing sexual risk behaviour among Dutch men who have sex with men: mathematical models versus prospective cohort data. AIDS. 2012;26:1840–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Stolte IG, de Wit JBF, van Eeden A, Coutinho RA, Dukers NH. Perceived viral load, but not actual HIV-1-RNA load, is associated with sexual risk behaviour among HIV-infected homosexual men. AIDS. 2004;18:1943–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Stolte IG, Dukers NH, Geskus RB, Coutinho RA, de Wit JBF. Homosexual men change to risky sex when perceiving less threat of HIV/AIDS since availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a longitudinal study. AIDS. 2004;18:303–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Van der Snoek EM, de Wit JBF, Mulder PG, van der Meijden WI. Incidence of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection related to perceived HIV/AIDS threat since highly active antiretroviral therapy availability in men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:170–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Hasse B, Ledergerber B, Hirschel B, Vernazza P, Glass TR, Jeannin AE, et al. Frequency and determinants of unprotected sex among HIV-infected persons: the Swiss HIV cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:1314–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Scheer S, Kellogg T, Klausner JD, Schwarcz S, Colfax G, Bernstein K, et al. HIV is hyperendemic among men who have sex with men in San Francisco: 10-year trends in HIV incidence, HIV prevalence, sexually transmitted infections and sexual risk behaviour. Sex Transm Infect. 2008;84:493–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Wilson DP. HIV treatment as prevention: natural experiments highlight limits of antiretroviral treatment as HIV prevention. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001231.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Smith MK, Powers KA, Muessig KE, Miller WC, Cohen MS. HIV treatment as prevention: the utility and limitations of ecological observation. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001260.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Gardner EM, McLees MP, Steiner JF, del Rio C, Burman WJ. The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:793–800.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Hull MW, Wu Z, Montaner JS. Optimizing the engagement of care cascade: a critical step to maximize the impact of HIV treatment as prevention. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:579–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. New South Wales Health. NSW HIV Strategy 2012–2015—A new era. Sydney: New South Wales Ministry of Health; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  103. McAllister J, Beardsworth G, Lavie E, MacRae K, Carr A. Financial stress is associated with reduced treatment adherence in HIV-infected adults in a resource-rich setting. HIV Med. 2013;14:120–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Mayer KH, Bekker LG, Stall R, Grulich AE, Colfax G, Lama JR. Comprehensive clinical care for men who have sex with men: an integrated approach. Lancet. 2012;380:378–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. White JM, Mimiaga MJ, Krakower DS, Mayer KH. Evolution of Massachusetts physician attitudes, knowledge, and experience regarding the use of antiretrovirals for HIV prevention. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2012;26:395–405.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Mao L, de Wit J, Adam P, Post JJ, Crooks L, Kidd MR, et al. Australian prescribers’ perspectives on ART initiation in the era of “treatment as prevention”. AIDS Care. Epub 2013 Feb 13 (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  107. De Wit J, Holt M, Treloar C, editors. HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia: Annual report of trends in behaviour 2012. Sydney: National Centre in HIV Social Research, University of New South Wales; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Horne R, Cooper V, Gellaitry G, Leake Date H, Fisher M. Patients’ perceptions of highly active antiretroviral therapy in relation to treatment uptake and adherence: the utility of the necessity-concerns framework. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:334–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Ortego C, Huedo-Medina TB, Llorca J, Sevilla L, Santos P, Rodríguez E, et al. Adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART): a meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:1381–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Chesney M. Adherence to HAART regimens. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2003;17:169–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Fisher JD, Amico KR, Fisher WA, Harman JJ. The information-motivation-behavioral skills model of antiretroviral adherence and its applications. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2008;5:193–203.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Rothman AJ. Toward a theory-based analysis of behavioral maintenance. Health Psychol. 2000;19 Suppl 1:S64–9.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Thompson MA, Aberg JA, Hoy JF, Telenti A, Benson C, Cahn P, et al. Antiretroviral treatment of adult HIV infection: 2012 recommendations of the International Antiviral Society-USA panel. JAMA. 2012;308:387–402.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Kalichman SC, Cherry C, Kalichman MO, Amaral CM, White D, Pope H, et al. Integrated behavioral intervention to improve HIV/AIDS treatment adherence and reduce HIV transmission. Am J Public Health. 2011;101:531–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Simoni JM, Amico KR, Smith L, Nelson K. Antiretroviral adherence interventions: translating research findings to the real world clinic. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2010;7:44–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Holt M, Murphy D, Callander D, Ellard J, Rosengarten M, Kippax S, et al. HIV-negative and HIV-positive gay men’s attitudes to medicines, HIV treatments and antiretroviral-based prevention. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:156–61.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Liu AY, Kittredge PV, Vittinghoff E, Raymond HF, Ahrens K, Matheson T, et al. Limited knowledge and use of HIV post- and pre-exposure prophylaxis among gay and bisexual men. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;47:241–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Saberi P, Gamarel KE, Neilands TB, Comfort M, Sheon N, Darbes LA, et al. Ambiguity, ambivalence, and apprehensions of taking HIV-1 pre-exposure prophylaxis among male couples in San Francisco: a mixed methods study. PLoS One. 2012;7:e50061.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Mehta SA, Silvera R, Bernstein K, Holzman RS, Aberg JA, Daskalakis DC. Awareness of post-exposure HIV prophylaxis in high-risk men who have sex with men in New York City. Sex Transm Infect. 2011;87:344–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Nodin N, Carballo-Diéguez A, Ventuneac AM, Balan IC, Remien R. Knowledge and acceptability of alternative HIV prevention bio-medical products among MSM who bareback. AIDS Care. 2008;20:106–15.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Rucinski KB, Mensah NP, Sepkowitz KA, Cutler BH, Sweeney MM, Myers JE. Knowledge and use of pre-exposure prophylaxis among an online sample of young men who have sex with men in New York City. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2180–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Mimiaga MJ, Case P, Johnson CV, Safren SA, Mayer KH. Preexposure antiretroviral prophylaxis attitudes in high-risk Boston area men who report having sex with men: limited knowledge and experience but potential for increased utilization after education. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;50:77–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Barash EA, Golden M. Awareness and use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among attendees of a seattle gay pride event and sexually transmitted disease clinic. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2010;24:689–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Kellerman SE, Hutchinson AB, Begley EB, Boyett BC, Clark HA, Sullivan P. Knowledge and use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among attendees of minority 2 pride events, 2004. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:376–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Voetsch AC, Heffelfinger JD, Begley EB, Jafa-Bhushan K, Sullivan PS. Knowledge and use of preexposure and postexposure prophylaxis among attendees of Minority Gay Pride events, 2005 through 2006. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:378–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Krakower DS, Mimiaga MJ, Rosenberger JG, Novak DS, Mitty JA, White JM, et al. Limited awareness and low immediate uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis among men who have sex with men using an internet social networking site. PLoS One. 2012;7:e33119.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Holt M, Murphy DA, Callander D, Ellard J, Rosengarten M, Kippax SC, et al. Willingness to use HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis and the likelihood of decreased condom use are both associated with unprotected anal intercourse and the perceived likelihood of becoming HIV positive among Australian gay and bisexual men. Sex Transm Infect. 2012;88:258–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Zablotska IB, Prestage G, de Wit J, Grulich AE, Mao L, Holt M. The informal use of antiretroviral medications for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) of HIV among gay men in Australia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:334–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Leonardi M, Lee E, Tan DH. Awareness of, usage of and willingness to use HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among men in downtown Toronto, Canada. Int J STD AIDS. 2011;22:738–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Aghaizu A, Mercey D, Copas A, Johnson AM, Hart G, Nardone A. Who would use PrEP? Factors associated with intention to use among MSM in London: a community survey. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:207–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Arnold EA, Hazelton P, Lane T, Christopoulos KA, Galindo GR, Steward WT, et al. A qualitative study of provider thoughts on implementing pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) in clinical settings to prevent HIV infection. PLoS One. 2012;7:e40603.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Reed JB, Njeuhmeli E, Thomas AG, Bacon MC, Bailey R, Cherutich P, et al. Voluntary medical male circumcision: an HIV prevention priority for PEPFAR. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;60 Suppl 3:S88–95.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Krakower D, Mayer KH. Engaging healthcare providers to implement HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:593–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Amico KR. Adherence to preexposure chemoprophylaxis: the behavioral bridge from efficacy to effectiveness. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2012;7:542–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Van der Straten A, Van Damme L, Haberer JE, Bangsberg DR. Unraveling the divergent results of pre-exposure prophylaxis trials for HIV prevention. AIDS. 2012;26:F13–9.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Weiss HA, Wasserheit JN, Barnabas RV, Hayes RJ, Abu-Raddad LJ. Persisting with prevention: the importance of adherence for HIV prevention. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2008;5:8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Mutua G, Sanders E, Mugo P, Anzala O, Haberer JE, Bangsberg D, et al. Safety and adherence to intermittent pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV-1 in African men who have sex with men and female sex workers. PLoS One. 2012;7:e33103.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Harris M, Montaner JS. Exploring the role of “treatment as prevention”. Curr HIV Res. 2011;9:352–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Sullivan PS, Carballo-Diéguez A, Coates T, Goodreau SM, McGowan I, Sanders EJ, et al. Successes and challenges of HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. Lancet. 2012;380:388–99.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Kurth AE, Celum C, Baeten JM, Vermund SH, Wasserheit JN. Combination HIV prevention: significance, challenges, and opportunities. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2011;8:62–72.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Marks G, Crepaz N, Janssen RS. Estimating sexual transmission of HIV from persons aware and unaware that they are infected with the virus in the USA. AIDS. 2006;20(10):1447–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Pedrana AE, Hellard ME, Wilson K, Guy R, Stoové M. High rates of undiagnosed HIV infections in a community sample of gay men in Melbourne, Australia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59(1):94–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Bezemer D, de Wolf F, Boerlijst MC, van Sighem A, Hollingsworth TD, Fraser C. 27 years of the HIV epidemic amongst men having sex with men in the Netherlands: an in depth mathematical model-based analysis. Epidemics. 2010;2(2):66–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Wilson DP, Hoare A, Regan DG, Law MG. Importance of promoting HIV testing for preventing secondary transmissions: modelling the Australian HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men. Sex Health. 2009;6:19–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, Janssen RS, Taylor AW, Lyss SB, et al. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR-14):1–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Heijman RL, Stolte IG, Thiesbrummel HF, van Leent E, Coutinho RA, Fennema JS, et al. Opting out increases HIV testing in a large sexually transmitted infections outpatient clinic. Sex Transm Infect. 2009;85:249–55.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Bourne C, Knight V, Guy R, Wand H, Lu H, McNulty A. Short message service reminder intervention doubles sexually transmitted infection/HIV re-testing rates among men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Infect. 2011;87:229–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Gray RT, Prestage GP, Down I, Ghaus MH, Hoare A, Bradley J, et al. Increased HIV testing will modestly reduce HIV incidence among gay men in NSW and would be acceptable if HIV testing becomes convenient. PLoS One. 2013;8:e55449.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Ventuneac A, Carballo-Diéguez A, Leu CS, Levin B, Bauermeister J, Woodman-Maynard E, et al. Use of a rapid HIV home test to screen sexual partners: an evaluation of its possible use and relative risk. AIDS Behav. 2009;13:731–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Greacen T, Friboulet D, Fugon L, Hefez S, Lorente N, Spire B. Access to and use of unauthorised online HIV self-tests by internet-using French-speaking men who have sex with men. Sex Transm Infect. 2012;88:368–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Bavinton BR, Brown G, Hurley M, Bradley J, Keen P, Conway DP, et al. Which gay men would increase their frequency of HIV testing with home self-testing? AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2084–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Pedrana A, Hellard M, Guy R, El-Hayek C, Gouillou M, Asselin J, et al. Stop the drama Downunder: a social marketing campaign increases HIV/sexually transmitted infection knowledge and testing in Australian gay men. Sex Transm Dis. 2012;39:651–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Flowers P, Knussen C, Li J, McDaid L. Has testing been normalized? An analysis of changes in barriers to HIV testing among men who have sex with men between 2000 and 2010 in Scotland, UK. HIV Med. 2013;14:92–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Lorenc T, Marrero-Guillamón I, Aggleton P, Cooper C, Llewellyn A, Lehmann A, et al. Promoting the uptake of HIV testing among men who have sex with men: systematic review of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. Sex Transm Infect. 2011;87:272–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. De Wit JBF, Adam PCG. To test or not to test: psychosocial barriers to HIV testing in high-income countries. HIV Med. 2008;9 Suppl 2:20–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Thaler RH, Sunstein CR. Nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Juusola JL, Brandeau ML, Long EF, Owens DK, Bendavid E. The cost-effectiveness of symptom-based testing and routine screening for acute HIV infection in men who have sex with men in the USA. AIDS. 2011;25:1779–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Mao L, Kippax SC, Holt M, Prestage GP, Zablotska IB, de Wit JB. Rates of condom and non-condom-based anal intercourse practices among homosexually active men in Australia: deliberate HIV risk reduction? Sex Transm Infect. 2011;87:489–93.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Fisher JD, Fisher WA. Changing AIDS-risk behavior. Psychol Bull. 1992;111:455–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Noar SM. Behavioral interventions to reduce HIV-related sexual risk behavior: review and synthesis of meta-analytic evidence. AIDS Behav. 2008;12:335–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. De Wit JBF, Adam PCG. HIV/AIDS: the role of behavior and the social environment in a global pandemic. In: Ramachandran V, editor. Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Hofmann W, Friese M, Wiers RW. Impulsive versus reflective influences on health behavior: a theoretical framework and empirical review. Health Psychol Rev. 2008;2:111–37.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Bartholomew LK, Parcel GS, Kok G, Gottlieb NH, Fernandez ME. Planning health promotion programs: an intervention mapping approach. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Michie S, Johnston M, Francis J, Hardeman W, Eccles M. From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques. Appl Psychol Int Rev. 2008;57:660–80.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Social Research in Health, The University of New South Wales, John Goodsell Building, Kensington Campus, 2052, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    John B. F. de Wit PhD & Philippe C. G. Adam

  2. Department of Social Psychology, Utrecht University, PO Box 80140, 3508, TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    John B. F. de Wit PhD

  3. Institute for Prevention and Social Research, Aan de Weverij 4, 6291, KE, Vaals, The Netherlands

    Philippe C. G. Adam

Authors
  1. John B. F. de Wit PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Philippe C. G. Adam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John B. F. de Wit PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Human Develop. & Family Studies, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA

    Lisa A. Eaton

  2. Ctr for Health Intervention & Prevention, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA

    Seth C. Kalichman

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

de Wit, J., Adam, P. (2014). Revolution or Evolution? What Can Approaches Based on the Use of Antiretroviral Drugs Contribute to HIV Prevention in Gay Communities in High-Income Countries?. In: Eaton, L., Kalichman, S. (eds) Biomedical Advances in HIV Prevention. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8845-3_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8845-3_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8844-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8845-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation