Skip to main content

Toward a Theory of Empathic Arousal and Development

  • Chapter
The Development of Affect

Part of the book series: Genesis of Behavior ((GOBE,volume 1))

Abstract

Empathy has long been a topic of interest in psychology, but its nature and development have not been systematically treated. I have for some time been working on a comprehensive theoretical model for empathy, and in this paper, I present the most recent version of this model.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aderman, D., Brehm, S. S., & Katz, L. B. Empathic observation of an innocent victim: The just world revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 342–347.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aronfreed, J. The socialization of altruistic and sympathie behavior: Some theoretical and experimental analyses. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press, 1970, pp. 103–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, H., & Rosenthal, L. Vicarious classical conditioning as a function of arousal level. journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 3, 54–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, S. M. Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychological Review, 1962, 69, 450–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, S. M., & Hadley, S. W. Some effects of a model’s performance on observer electromyographic activity. American Journal of Psychology, 1975, 88, 263–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernai, G. & Berger, S. M. Vicarious eyelid conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1976, 34, 62–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borke, H. Interpersonal perception of young children: Egocentricism or empathy. Developmental Psychology, 1971, 5, 263–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bridges, K. M. B. The social and emotional development of the preschool child. London: Kegan Paul, 1931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T. On the genetics of altruism and the counter-hedonic components in human culture. The Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28, 21–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, D. H., Blurton, L. B., Kobayashi, L. R., McFarland, J. L., & Yang, R. K. Studies in early infant learning: Classical conditioning of the neonatal heart rate. Developmental Psychology, 1976, 12, 373–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 8, 377–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feshbach, N. D., & Roe, K. Empathy in six-and seven-year-olds. Child Development, 1968, 39, 133–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, J. L., Wallington, S. A., & Bless, E. Compliance without pressure: The effect of guilt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1967, 7, 117–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelhorn, E. Motion and emotion: The role of proprioception in the physiology and pathology of the emotions. Psychological Review, 1964, 71, 457–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Empathy, role-taking, guilt and the development of altruistic motives. Developmental Psychology Report No. 30, University of Michigan, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its implications for altruistic motivation. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 607–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Empathy, role-taking, guilt, and development of altruistic motives. In T. Likona (Ed.), Moral development: Current theory and research. New York: Holt, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 1977, 84, 712–722. (a)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Moral internalization: Current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press, 1977, pp. 86–135. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Is altruism part of human nature? Unpublished manuscript. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1977. (c)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Empathy, its development and prosocial implications. In B. Keasy (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 26). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, in press, (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. Adolescent morality in developmental perspective. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley Interscience, in press, (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey, G. The conditioned reflex and the elementary social reaction. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1922, 17, 113–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iannotti, R. J. Empathy as a motivator of altruistic behavior. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans, August 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. The face of emotion. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, W. The principles of psychology. New York: Holt, 1890.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kameya, L. I. The effect of empathy level and role-taking training upon prosocial behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, D. Empathy and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 1124–1146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laird, J. D. Self-attribution of emotion: The effects of expressive behavior on the quality of emotional experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 475–486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. Observer’s reaction to the innocent victim: Compassion or rejection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 203–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levine, L. E., & Hoffman, M. L. Empathy and cooperation in 4-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11, 533–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipps, T. Das Wissen von fremden Ichen. Psychologische Untersuchnung, 1906, 1, 694–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. The limbic system with respect to self-preservation and the preservation of the species. Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 1958, 127, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. New findings relevant to the evolution of psychosexual functions of the brain. Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 1962, 135, 289–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. The brain in relation to empathy and medical education. Journal of Nervous Mental Disease, 1967, 144, 374–382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. A triune concept of the brain and behavior. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, G. Mind and emotion. New York: Wiley, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, K. E., & Canon, L. K. Environmental noise level as a determinant of helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32, 571–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, K., & Stotland, E. Empathy and nursing students’ contact with patients. University of Washington, Spokane, 1973. (Mimeo)

    Google Scholar 

  • McDougall, W. An introduction to social psychology. London: Methuen, 1908.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Milgram, S. Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 1963, 67, 371–378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, B. S., Underwood, B., & Rosenhan, D. L. Affect and altruism. Developmental Psychology, 1973, 8, 99–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, L. B. Social behavior and child personality. New York: Columbia University Press, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D. W. Guilt, perceived injustice, and altruistic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1937, 18, 124–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D. T., Williams, M., & Sparling, S. Voluntary expiation of guilt: A field experiment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1972, 24, 42–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. Empathic distress in newborns. Developmental Psychology, 1976, 12, 175–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schachter, S., & Singer, J. E. Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 1962, 69, 379–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simner, M. L. Newborn’s response to the cry of another infant. Developmental Psychology, 1971, 5, 136–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speisman, J. C., Lazarus, R. C., Mordkoff, A., & Davison, L. Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1964, 68, 367–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E., & Sherk, L. Need for approval, children’s sharing behavior, and reciprocity in sharing. Child Development, 1970, 41, 243–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stotland, E. Exploratory investigations of empathy. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4). New York: Academic Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stotland, E., Sherman, S. E., & Shaver, K. G. Empathy and birth order. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, H. S. Conceptions of modern psychiatry. London: Tavistock Press, 1940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilker, H. A. Socially responsible behavior as a function of observer responsibility and victim feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 14, 95–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins, S.S. Affect, imagery, conciousness. New York: Springer, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R. L. The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology, 1971, 46, 35–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. F., Boyer, J. L., Lombardo, J. P., & Stich, M. H. Altruistic drive and altruistic reinforcement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 25, 390–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. F., Buchanan, W., Alstatt, L., & Lombardo, J. P. Altruism is rewarding. Science, 1971, 171, 1262–1263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wine, J. D. Test anxiety and helping behavior. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 1975, 7, 216–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1978 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hoffman, M.L. (1978). Toward a Theory of Empathic Arousal and Development. In: Lewis, M., Rosenblum, L.A. (eds) The Development of Affect. Genesis of Behavior, vol 1. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2616-8_9

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-2618-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-2616-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics