Abstract
Stress is thought to contribute to a wide variety of human disease states. Foremost among these are cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, cardiac arrhythmia, angina, myocardial infarction, and even sudden death. Nonetheless, we know little about the neural circuitry responsible for integrating the autonomic “stress response” above the level of the medulla-pons, and even less about the neuropharmacology of these higher pathways. The clarification and extension of existing data regarding central nervous system (CNS) mechanisms controlling the physiological and behavioral response to stress might suggest new strategies for its better understanding and control.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abrahams VC, Hilton SM, Zbrozyna A (1960): Active muscle vasodilation by stimulation of the brain stem: its significance in the defence reaction. J Physiol Lond 154:491–513
Abrahams VC, Hilton SM, Zbrozyna A (1964): The role of active muscle vasodilation in the alerting stage of the defense reaction. J Physiol 171:189–202
Abshire VM, Hankins KD, Roehr KE, DiMicco JA (1988): Injection of L-allylglycine into the posterior hypothalamus in rats causes decreases in local GABA which correlate with increases in heart rate. Neuropharmacology 27:1171–1177
Al Maskati HA, Zbrozyna AW (1989): Cardiovascular and motor components of the defense reaction elicited in rats by electrical and chemical stimulation of the amygdala. J Auton Nerv Syst 28:127–132
Anderson JA, DiMicco JA (1990): Effect of local inhibition of GABA uptake in the dorsomedial hypothalamus on extracellular levels of GABA and on stress-induced tachycardia: A study using microdialysis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 255:1399–1407
Audi EA, Graeff EG (1987): GABAA receptors in the midbrain central grey mediate the anti-aversive action of GABA. Eur J Pharmacol 135:225–229
Azevedo AD, Hilton SM, Timms RJ (1979): The defense reaction elicited by midbrain and hypothalamic stimulation in the rabbit. J Physiol 301:56–57P
Bandler R (1982): Induction of ‘rage’ following microinjections of glutamate into midbrain but not hypothalamus of cats. Neurosci Lett 30:183–188
Bandler R, Carrive P (1988): Integrated defense reaction elicited by excitatory amino acid microinjection in the midbrain periaqueductal grey region of the unrestrained cat. Brain Res 439:95–106
Bandler R, DePaulis A (1988): Elicitation of intraspecific defense reactions in the rat from midbrain periaqueductal grey by microinjection of kainic acid, without neurotoxic effects. Neurosci Lett 88:291–296
Bard P (1928): A diencephalic mechanism for the expression of rage with special reference to the sympathetic nervous system. Am J Physiol 84:490–515
Barron BA, Van Loon GR (1989): Role of the sympathoadrenomedullary system in cardiovascular response to stress in rats. J Auton Nerv Syst 28:179–188
Bauer RM, Vela MB, Simon T, Waldrop TG (1988): A GABAergic mechanism in the posterior hypothalamus modulates baroreflex bradycardia. Brain Res Bull 20:633–641
Berk ML, Finkelstein JA (1981): Afferent projections to the preoptic area and hypothalamic regions in the rat brain. Neuroscience 6:1601–1624
Bernardis LL, Bellinger LL (1987): The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus revisited: An update. Brain Res Rev 12:321–381
Bilski AJ, Halliday SE, Fitzgerald JD, Wale JL (1983): The pharmacology of a beta2-selective adrenoceptor antagonist (ICI 118,551). J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 5:430–437
Brandao ML, DiScala G, Bouchet MJ, Schmitt P (1986): Escape behavior produced by blockade of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) in mesencephalic central grey or medial hypothalamus. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 24:497–501
Brandao ML, Tomaz C, Leao Borges PC, Coimbra NC, Bagri A (1988): Defense reactions induced by microinjections of bicuculline into the inferior colliculus. Physiol Behav 44:361–365
Callahan MF, Kirby RF, Cunningham JT, Eskridge-Sloop SI, Johnson AK, McCarty R, Gruber KA (1989): Central oxytocin systems may mediate a cardiovascular response to acute stress in rats. Am J Physiol 256:H1369–H1377
Cannon WB, Britton SW (1925): Studies on the conditions of activity in endocrine glands. XV. Pseudaffective medulliadrenal secretion. Am J Physiol 72:283–294
Caraffa-Braga E, Granata L, Pinotti O (1973): Changes in blood flow distribution during acute emotional stress in dogs. Pflügers Arch 339:203–216
Carrive P, Bandler R, Dampney RAL (1989a): Somatic and autonomic integration in the midbrain of the unanesthetized decerebrate cat: A distinctive pattern evoked by excitation of neurones in the subtentorial portion of the midbrain periaqueductal grey. Brain Res 483:251–258
Carrive P, Bandler R, Dampney RAL (1989b): Viscerotopic control of regional vascular beds by discrete groups of neurones within the midbrain periaqueductal grey. Brain Res 493:385–390
Carrive P, Dampney RAL, Bandler R (1987): Excitation of neurones in a restricted portion of the periaqueductal grey elicits both behavioral and cardiovascular components of the defense reaction in the unanesthetized decerebrate cat. Neurosci Lett 81:273–278
Cechetto DF, Saper CB (1988): Neurochemical organization of the hypothalamic projection to the spinal cord in the rat. J Comp Neurol 272:579–604
Clark BJ (1982): Beta adrenoceptor blocking agents: Are pharmacologic differences relevant? Am Heart J 104:334–346
Collingridge GL, Lester RA (1989): Excitatory amino acid receptors in the vertebrate central nervous system. Pharmacol Rev 40:143–210
Conahan ST, Vogel W (1986): The effect of diazepam administration on heart rate and mean blood pressure in resting and stressed conscious rats. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 53:301–317
Corda MG, Biggio G (1986): Pro-conflict effect of GABA receptor complex antagonists. Reversal by diazepam. Neuropharmacology 25:541–544
Corda MG, Blaker WD, Mendelson WB, Guidotti A, Costa E (1983): Beta-carbolines enhance shock-induced suppression of drinking in rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 80:2072–2076
Cruickshank JM (1980): The clinical importance of cardioselectivity and lipophilicity in beta blockers. Am Heart J 2:160–178
Darlington DN, Miyamoto M, Keil LC, Dallman MF (1989): Paraventricular stimulation with glutamate elicits bradycardia and pituitary responses. Am J Physiol 256:R112–R119
DePaulis A, Bandler R, Vergnes M (1989): Characterization of pretentorial periaqueductal grey matter neurons mediating intraspecific defensive behaviors in the rat by microinjection of kainic acid. Brain Res 486:121–132
DePaulis A, Vergnes M (1986): Elicitation of intraspecific defensive behaviors in the rat by microinjection of picrotoxin, a GABA antagonist, into the midbrain periaqueductal grey matter. Brain Res 367:87–95
DiMicco JA (1982): Blockade of forebrain GABA receptors and reflex activation of the cardiac vagus in anesthetized cats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 223:654–661
DiMicco JA, Abshire VM (1987): Evidence for GABAergic inhibition of a hypothalamic sympthoexcitatory mechanism in anesthetized rats. Brain Res 402:1–10
DiMicco JA, Abshire VM, Hankins KD, Sample RHB, Wible JH Jr (1986): Microinjection of GABA antagonists into posterior hypothalamus elevates heart rate in anesthetized rats. Neuropharmacology 25:1063–1066
DiScala G, Sandner G (1989): Conditioned place aversion produced by microinjections of semicarbazide into the periaqueductal grey of the rat. Brain Res 483:91–97
DiScala G, Schmitt P, Karli P (1984): Flight induced by infusion of bicuculline methiodide into periventricular structures. Brain Res 309:199–207
Diz DI, Jacobowitz DM (1983): Cardiovascular effects of intrahypothalamic injections of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone. Brain Res 270:265–272
Djojosugito AM, Folkow B, Kylstra PH, Lisander B, Tuttle RS (1970): Differential interaction between the hypothalamic defense reaction and the baroreceptor reflexes. I. Effects on heart rate and regional flow resistance. Acta Physiol Scand 78:376–385
Eliasson S, Folkow B, Lindgren P, Uvnas B (1951): Activation of sympathetic vasodilator nerves to the skeletal muscles in the cat by hypothalamic stimulation. Acta Physiol Scand 23:333–351
Eliasson S, Lindgren P, Uvnas B (1952): Representation in the hypothalamus and the motor cortex of the dog of the sympathetic vasodilator outflow to the skeletal muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 27:18–37
Enoch DM, Kerr FWL (1967): Hypothalamic vasopressor and vesicopressor pathways. Arch Neurol 16:307–320
Feuerstein G, Adelberg SA, Kopin IJ, Jacobowitz DM (1982): Hypothalamic sites for cardiovascular and sympathetic modulation by prostaglandin E2. Brain Res 231:335–342
File SE (1987): The contribution of behavioral studies to the neuropharmacology of anxiety. Neuropharmacology 26:877–886
File SE, Baldwin HA (1987): Effects of Beta-carbolines in animal models of anxiety. Brain Res Bull 19:293–299
Gelsema AJ, Roe MJ, Calaresu FR (1989): Neurally mediated cardiovascular responses to stimulation of cell bodies in the hypothalamus of the rat. Brain Res 482:67–77
Goodchild AK, Dampney RAL, Bandler R (1982): A method for evoking physiological responses by stimulation of cell bodies but not axons of passage within a localized region of the central nervous system. J Neurosci Meth 6:351–363
Granata AR, Numao Y, Kumada M, Reis DJ (1986): A1 noradrenergic neurons tonically inhibit sympathoexcitatory neurons of C1 area in rat brain. Brain Res 377:127–146
Gue M, Bueno L (1986): Diazepam and muscimol blockade of the gastrointestinal motor disturbances induced by acute stress in dogs. Eur J Pharmacol 131:123–127
Haywood JR, Shaffer RA, Fastenow C, Fink GD, Brody MJ (1981): Regional blood flow measurement with pulsed Doppler flowmeter in conscious rat. Am J Physiol 241:H273–278
Hess WR, Brugger M (1943): Das subkortikale Zentrum der affektivien Abwehrreaktion. Helv Physiol Pharmacol Acta 1:33–52
Hilton SM (1979): The defense reaction as a paradigm for cardiovascular control. In: Integrative Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System, Brooks C McC, Koizumi K, Sato A, eds. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press
Hilton SM, Marshall JM, Timms RJ (1983): Ventral medullary relay neurones in the pathway from the defence areas of the cat and their effect on blood pressure. J Physiol 345:149–166
Hilton SM, Redfern WS (1986): A search for brain stem groups integrating the defence reaction in the rat. J Physiol 378:213–228
Hilton SM, Zbrozyna AW(1963): Amygdaloid region for defence reactions and its efferent pathway to the brain stem. J Physiol 165:160–173
Honore T, Davies SN, Dreier J, Fletcher EJ, Jacobsen P, Lodge D, Nielsen FE (1988): Quinoxalinediones: Potent competitive non-NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists. Science 241:701–703
Hubbard JW, Cox RH, Sanders BJ, Lawler JE (1986): Changes in cardiac output and vascular resistance during behavioral stress in the rat. Am J Physiol 251:R82–R90
Hunsperger RW (1956): Affektreaktionen auf elektrische Reizung im Himstamm der Katze. Helv Physiol Pharmacol Acta 14:70–92
Insel TR, Ninan FT, Aloi J, Jimerson DC, Skolnick P, Paul SM (1984): A benzodiazepine receptor-mediated model of anxiety. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:741–750
Iwata J, Chida K, LeDoux JE (1987): Cardiovascular responses elicited by stimulation of neurons in the central amygdaloid nucleus in awake but not in anesthetized rats resemble conditioned emotional responses. Brain 418:183–188
Kapusta DR, Knardahl S, Koepke JP, Johnson AK, DiBona GF (1989): Selective central alpha2 adrenoceptor control of regional hemodynamic responses to air jet stress in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Hypertens 7:189–194
Karplus JP, Kreidl A (1910): Gehirn und sympathicus. II. Mitteilung. Ein Sympathicuszentrum in dem Zwischenhirn. Pflügers Arch 135:401–416
Kessler JP, Cherkaoui N, Catalin D, Jean A (1990): Swallowing responses induced by microinjection of glutamate and glutamate agonists into the nucleus tractus solitarius of ketamine anesthetized rats. Exp Brain Res 83:151–158
Kirby RF, Callahan MF, McCarty R, Johnson AK (1989): Cardiovascular and sympathetic nervous system response to an acute stressor in borderline hypertensive rats (BHR). Physiol Behav 46:309–313
Koepke JP, Jones S, DiBona GF (1986): Hypothalamic beta2-adrenoceptor control of renal sympathetic nerve activity and urinary sodium excretion in conscious, spontaneously hypertensive rats. Circ Res 58:241–248
Koepke JP, Jones S, DiBona GF (1987): Alpha-2 adrenoceptors in amygdala control renal sympathetic nerve activity and renal function in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats. Brain Res 404:80–88
Konig JFR, Klippel RA (1963): The Rat Brain, A Stereotaxic Atlas of the Forebrain and Lower Parts of the Brainstem Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins
Kovacs KJ, Makara GB (1990): Partial deafferentation of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: Effect on the stress or adrenalectomy-induced ACTH secretion. Neuroendocrinol Lett 12:383–389
Kurosawa M, Sato A, Swenson RS, Takahashi Y (1986): Sympatho-adrenal medullary functions in response to intracerebroventricularly injected corticotropin releasing factor in anesthetized rats. Brain Res 367:250–257
LeDoux JE, Iwata J, Cicchetti P, Reis DJ (1988): Different projections of the central amygdaloid nucleus mediate autonomic and behavioral correlates of conditioned fear. J Neurosci 8:2517–2529
LeDoux JE, Thompson ME, Iadecola C, Tucker LW, Reis DJ (1983): Local cerebral blood flow increases during auditory and emotional processing in the conscious rat. Science 221:576–578
Lenz HJ, Raedler A, Greten H, Brown MR (1987): CRF initiates biological actions within the brain that are observed in response to stress. Am J Physiol 252:R34–R39
Lipski J, Bellingham MC, West MJ, Pilowsky P (1988): Limitations of the technique of pressure microinjection of excitatory amino acids for evoking responses from localized regions of the CNS. J Neurosci Methods 26:169–179
Lisa M, Marmo E, Wible JH Jr, DiMicco JA (1989): Injection of muscimol into posterior hypothalamus blocks stress-induced tachycardia. Am J Physiol 257:R246–R251
Luiten PGM, Ter Horst GJ, Karst H, Steffens AB (1985): The course of paraventricular hypothalamic efferents to autonomic structures in medulla and spinal cord. Brain Res 329:374–378
Lundin S, Thoren P (1982): Renal function and sympathetic activity during mental stress in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Acta Physiol Scand 115:115–124
Martin DS, Segura T, Haywood JR (1991): Cardiovascular responses to bicuculline in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat. Hypertension 18:48–55
McCarty R (1985): Cardiovascular responses to acute footshock stress in adult and aged Fischer 344 male rats. Neurobiol Aging 6:47–50
Monaghan DT, Cotman CW (1982): The distribution of [3H]-kainic acid binding sites in rat central nervous system as determined by autoradiography. Brain Res 252:91–100
Monaghan DT, Cotman CW (1985): Distribution of N-methyl-D-aspartate-sensitive L-[3H]-glutamate binding sites in rat brain. J Neurosci 5:2909–2919
Mugnaini E, Oertel WH (1985): An atlas of the distribution of GABAergic neurons and termminals in the rat CNS as revealed by GAD immunohistochemistry. Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy 4:436–608
Ninan PT, Insel TM, Cohen RM, Cook JC, Skolnick P, Paul SM (1982): Benzodiazepine receptor-mediated experimental “anxiety” in primates. Science 218:1332–1334
Ondo JG, Wheeler DD, Dom RM (1988): Hypothalamic site of action for NMDA on LH secretion. Life Sci 43:2283–2286
Oppenheimer SM, Cechetto DF (1990): Cardiac chronotropic organization of the rat insular cortex. Brain Res 533:66–72
Pagani FD, DiMicco JA, Hamilton BL, Dias Souza J, Schmidt B, Gillis RA (1987): Stress-induced changes in parasympathetic function are mimicked by blocking CNS GABA in the cat. Neuropharmacology 26:155–160
Paxinos G, Watson C (1986): The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates (2nd ed). New York: Academic Press
Pellegrino LJ, Pellegrino AS, Cushman AJ (1979): Stereotaxic Atlas of the Rat Brain (2nd ed). New York: Plenum
Rainbow TC, Wieczorek CM, Halpain S (1984): Quantitative autoradiography of binding sites for [3H]-AMPA, a structural analog of glutamic acid. Brain Res 309:173–177
Ray A, Henke PG, Sullivan RM (1987): The central amygdala and immobilization stress-induced gastric pathology in rats: Neurotensin and dopamine. Brain Res 409:398–402
Rochette L, Didier J-P, Moreau D, Bralet BS, Opie LH (1982): Role of beta adrenoceptor antagonism in the prevention of reperfusion ventricular arrhythmias: Effects of acebutolol, atenolol, and D-propranolol on isolated working rat hearts subject to myocardial ischemia. Am Heart J 107:1132–1141
Sah P, Hestrin S, Nicoll RA (1989): Tonic activation of NMDA receptors by ambient glutamate enhances excitability of neurons. Science 246:815–818
Sample RHB, DiMicco JA (1987): Localization of sites in the periventricular forebrain mediating cardiovascular effects of GABA agonists and antagonists in anesthetized cats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 240:498–507
Sanders BJ, Knardahl S, Johnson AK (1989): Lesions of the anteroventral third ventricle and development of stress-induced hypertension in the borderline hypertensive rat. Hypertension 13:817–821
Sano K, Mayanagi Y, Sekino H, Ogashiwa M, Ishijima B (1970): Results of stimulation and destruction of the posterior hypothalamus in man. J Neurosurg 33:689–707
Saper CB, Loewy AD, Swanson LW, Cowan WM (1976): Direct hypothalamo-autonomic connections. Brain Res 117:305–312
Schmidt B, DiMicco JA (1984): Blockade of GABA receptors in periventricular forebrain of anesthetized cats: Effects on heart rate, arterial pressure, and hindlimb vascular resistance. Brain Res 301:111–119
Schmitt P, Carrive P, DiScala G, Jenck F, Brandao M, Bagri A, Moreau J-L, Sandner G (1986): A neuropharmacological study of the periventricular neural substrate involved in flight. Behav Brain Res 22:181–190
Schmitt P, DiScala G, Brandao ML, Karli P (1985): Behavioral effects of microinjections of SR 95103, a new GABAA antagonist, into the medial hypothalamus or the mesencephalic central gray. Eur J Pharmacol 117:149–158
Schramm LP, Honig CR, Bignall KE (1971): Active muscle vasodilation in primates homologous with sympathetic vasodilation in carnivores. Am J Physiol 221:768–777
Schvarcz JR (1977): Results of stimulation and destruction of the posterior hypothalamus: a long-term evaluation. In: Neurosurgical Treatment in Psychiatry, Pain and Epilepsy, Sweet WH, Obrador S, Martin-Rodriguez JG, eds. Baltimore: University Park Press
Shekhar A, DiMicco JA (1987): Defense reaction elicited by injection of GABA antagonists into the posterior hypothalamus in rats. Neuropharmacology 26:407–417
Shekhar A, Hingtgen JN, DiMicco JA (1987): Selective enhancement of shock avoidance responding elicited by GABA blockade in the posterior hypothalamus in rats. Brain Res 420:118–128
Shekhar A, Hingtgen JN, DiMicco JA (1989): Anxiogenic effects of noreleagnine, a water soluble beta carboline, in rats. Neuropharmacology 28:539–544
Shekhar A, Hingtgen JN, DiMicco JA (1990): GABA receptors in the posterior hypothalamus regulate experimental anxiety in rats. Brain Res 412:81–88
Shephard RA (1986): Neurotransmitters, anxiety, and benzodiazepines: a behavioral review. Neurosci Behav Rev 10:449–461
Skinner JE, Lie JT, Entman ML (1975): Modification of ventricular fibrillation latency following coronary occlusion in the conscious pig: the effects of psychologic stress and beta adrenergic blockade. Circulation 51:656–667
Skinner JE, Reed JC (1981): Blockade of frontocortical-brainstem pathway prevents ventricular fibrillation of ischemic heart. Am J Physiol 240:H156–H163
Smith HJ (1983): The need to redefine membrane stabilizing activity of beta adrenergic receptor antagonists. J Mol Cell Cardiol 14:495–500
Smith OA, Astley CA, Hohimer AR, Stephenson RB (1980): Behavioral and cerebral control of cardiovascular function. In: Neural Control of the Circulation, Hughes MJ, Barnes CD, eds. New York: Academic Press
Smith OA, Hohimer AR, Astley CA, Taylor DJ (1979): Renal and hindlimb vascular control during acute emotion in the baboon. Am J Physiol 236:R198–R205
Soltis RP, DiMicco JA (1991a): GABAA and excitatory amino acid receptors in dorsome dial hypothalamus and heart rate in rats. Am J Physiol 260:R13–R20
Soltis RP, DiMicco JA (1991b): Interaction of hypothalamic GABAA and excitatory amino acid receptors controlling heart rate in rats. Am J Physiol 261:R427–R433
Soltis RP, DiMicco JA (1992): Hypothalamic excitatory amino acid receptors mediate stress-induced tachycardia in rats. Am J Physiol. 262:R689–R697
Spencer SE, Sawyer WB, Loewy AD (1990): L-Glutamate mapping of cardioreactive areas in the posterior hypothalamus. Brain Res 511:149–157
Stephens DN, Schneider HH, Kehr W, Jensen LH, Petersen E, Honore T (1987): Modulation of anxiety by beta-carbolines and other benzodiazepine receptor ligands: Relationship of pharmacological to biochemical measures of efficacy. Brain Res Bull 19:309–318
Stratton JR, Halter JB (1985): Effects of a benzodiazepine (Alprazolam) on plasma epinephrine and norepinephrine levels during exercise stress. Am J Cardiol 56:136–139
Stutzman J-M, Bohme GA, Cochon M, Roux M, Blanchard J-C (1987): Pro-conflict and electrocorticographic effects of drugs modulating GABAergic neurotransmission. Psychopharmacology 91:74–79
Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE (1980): Paraventricular nucleus: A site for integration of neuroendocrine and autonomic mechanisms. Neuroendocrinology 31:410–417
Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE (1983): Hypothalamic integration: Organization of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei. Annu Rev Neurosci 6:269–324
Swanson LW, Sawchenko PE, Lind RW (1986): Regulation of multiple peptides in CRF parvocellular neurons: Implications for the stress response. Prog Brain Res 68:169–188
Tan E, Dampney RAL (1983): Cardiovascular effects of stimulation of neurones within the defense area of the hypothalamus and midbrain of the rabbit. Clin Exp Physiol Pharmacol 10:299–303
Tappaz ML, Brownstein MJ, Kopin IJ (1977): Glutamate decarboxylase and GABA in discrete nuclei of hypothalamus and substantia nigra. Brain Res 125:109–121
Ter Horst GJ, Luiten PGM (1986): Projections of the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus in the rat. Brain Res Bull 16:231–248
Ter Horst GJ, Luiten PGM (1987): Phaseolus vulgaris leuco-agglutinin tracing of the intrahypothalamic connections of the lateral, ventromedial, dorsomedial and paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei in the rat. Brain Res Bull 18:191–203
Thiebot M-H, Soubrie P, Sanger D (1988): Anxiogenic properties of beta-CCE and FG 7142: A review of promises and pitfalls. Psychopharmacology 94:452–463
van den Pol AN, Wuarin J-P, Dudek FE (1990): Glutamate, the dominant excitatory transmitter in endocrine regulation. Science 250:1276–1278
Van der Heyden JAM, de Kloet EK, Korf J, Versteeg DHG (1979): GABA content of discrete brain nuclei and spinal cord of the rat. J Neurochem 33:857–861
Waldrop TG, Bauer Rm (1989): Modulation of sympathetic discharge by a hypothalamic GABAergic mechanism. Neuropharmacology 28:263–269
Waldrop TG, Bauer RM, Iwamoto GA (1989): Microinjection of GABA antagonists into the posterior hypothalamus elicits locomotor activity and a cardiorespiratory activation. Brain Res 444:84–94
Wible JH Jr, DiMicco JA, Luft FC (1989): Hypothalamic GABA and sympathetic regulation in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 14:623–628
Wible JH Jr, Luft FC, DiMicco JA (1988): Hypothalamic GABA suppresses sympathetic outflow to the cardiovascular system. Am J Physiol 254:R680–687
Williams CL, Peterson JM, Villar R, Burks TF (1987): Corticotrophin-releasing factor directly mediates colonic responses to stress. Am J Physiol 253:G582–586
Yardley CP, Hilton SM (1986): The hypothalamic and brainstem areas from which the cardiovascular and behavioral components of the defense reaction are elicited in the rat. J Auton Nerv Syst 15:227–244
Yardley CP, Hilton SM (1987): Vasodilatadon in hind-limb skeletal muscle evoked as part of the defense reaction in the rat. J Auton Nerv Syst 19:127–136
Yashpal K, Gauthier S, Henry JL (1987): Oxytocin administered intrathecally preferentially increases heart rate rather than arterial pressure in the rat. J Autonom Nerv Syst 20:167–178
Yasui Y, Breder CD, Saper CB, Cechetto DF (1991): Autonomic responses and efferent pathways from the insular cortex in the rat. J Comp Neurol 303:355–374
Zhang J-X, Harper RM, Ni H (1986): Cryogenic blockade of the central nucleus of the amygdala attenuates aversively conditioned blood pressure and respiratory responses. Brain Res 386:136–141
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1992 Birkhäuser Boston
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
DiMicco, J.A., Soltis, R.P., Anderson, J.J., Wible, J.H. (1992). Hypothalamic Mechanisms and the Cardiovascular Response to Stress. In: Kunos, G., Ciriello, J. (eds) Central Neural Mechanisms in Cardiovascular Regulation. Birkhäuser Boston. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-9184-5_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-9184-5_3
Publisher Name: Birkhäuser Boston
Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-9186-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-4684-9184-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive