Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Liver Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
International Manual of Oncology Practice

  • 737 Accesses

Abstract

Liver cancer is the fifth most common malignancy in the world and the second cause of death which translates its high virulence (Cancer W-IAoRo: GLOBALCAN 2012: estimated cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide in 2012. IARC, Lyon, 2012). This cancer is the fifth most common malignancy in men (554.000 cases, 7, 5% of the total) and the ninth in women (228.000 cases, 3, 4%). The estimated 782.000 cases worldwide in 2012 that occur 83% in developed regions (50% in China alone).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Cancer W-IAoRo (2012) GLOBALCAN 2012: estimated cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide in 2012. IARC, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  2. El-Serag HB (2004) Hepatocellular carcinoma: recent trends in the United States. Gastroenterology 127(5):S27–S34

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Perz JF, Armstrong GL, Farrington LA, Hutin YJ, Bell BP (2006) The contributions of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections to cirrhosis and primary liver cancer worldwide. J Hepatol 45(4):529–538

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Skolnick AA (1996) Armed with epidemiologic research, China launches programs to prevent liver cancer. JAMA 276(18):1458–1459

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Sanyal AJ, Yoon SK, Lencioni R (2010) The etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma and consequences for treatment. Oncologist 15(Supplement 4):14–22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Papaiordanou F, Ribeiro-Junior MAF, Saad WA (2009) Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma. ABCD Arquivos Brasileiros de Cirurgia Digestiva (São Paulo) 22(2):115–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA (2015) DeVita, Hellman, and Rosenberg’s cancer: principles & practice of oncology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  8. Duseja A, Singh SP, Saraswat VA, Acharya SK, Chawla YK, Chowdhury S et al (2015) Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and metabolic syndrome—position paper of the Indian National Association for the Study of the liver, endocrine society of India, Indian College of Cardiology and Indian Society of Gastroenterology. J Clin Exp Hepatol 5(1):51–68

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Bressac B, Puisieux A, Kew M, Volkmann M, Bozcall S, Mura JB et al (1991) p53 mutation in hepatocellular carcinoma after aflatoxin exposure. Lancet 338(8779):1356–1359

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Amin MB, Edge SB (2017) AJCC cancer staging manual. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. Luo J-C, Hwang S-J, Wu J-C, Lai C-R, Li C-P, Chang F-Y et al (2002) Clinical characteristics and prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma patients with paraneoplastic syndromes. Hepato-Gastroenterology 49(47):1315–1319

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kojiro M, Wanless IR, Alves V, Badve S, Balabaud C, Bedosa P et al (2009) Pathologic diagnosis of early hepatocellular carcinoma: a report of the international consensus group for hepatocellular neoplasia. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 49(2):658–664

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Miller G, Schwartz LH, D’Angelica M (2007) The use of imaging in the diagnosis and staging of hepatobiliary malignancies. Surg Oncol Clin N Am 16(2):343–368

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Chou R, Cuevas C, Fu R, Devine B, Wasson N, Ginsburg A et al (2015) Imaging techniques for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 162(10):697–711

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Farinati F, Marino D, De Giorgio M, Baldan A, Cantarini M, Cursaro C et al (2006) Diagnostic and prognostic role of α-fetoprotein in hepatocellular carcinoma: both or neither? Am J Gastroenterol 101(3):524–532

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Levy I, Sherman M (2002) Staging of hepatocellular carcinoma: assessment of the CLIP, Okuda, and Child-Pugh staging systems in a cohort of 257 patients in Toronto. Gut 50(6):881–885

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Durand F, Valla D (2005) Assessment of the prognosis of cirrhosis: child–pugh versus MELD. J Hepatol 42(1):S100–S1S7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Maida M, Orlando E, Cammà C, Cabibbo G (2014) Staging systems of hepatocellular carcinoma: a review of literature. World J Gastroenterol: WJG 20(15):4141

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Marrero JA, Fontana RJ, Barrat A, Askari F, Conjeevaram HS, Su GL et al (2005) Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of 7 staging systems in an American cohort. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 41(4):707–715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Clavien P-A, Petrowsky H, DeOliveira ML, Graf R (2007) Strategies for safer liver surgery and partial liver transplantation. N Engl J Med 356(15):1545–1559

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Ochiai T, Ogino S, Ishimoto T, Toma A, Yamamoto Y, Morimura R et al (2014) Prognostic impact of hepatectomy for patients with non-hepatitis B, non-hepatitis C hepatocellular carcinoma. Anticancer Res 34(8):4399–4410

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Arii S, Yamaoka Y, Futagawa S, Inoue K, Kobayashi K, Kojiro M et al (2000) Results of surgical and nonsurgical treatment for small-sized hepatocellular carcinomas: a retrospective and nationwide survey in Japan. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 32(6):1224–1229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Dhir M, Lyden ER, Smith LM, Are C (2012) Comparison of outcomes of transplantation and resection in patients with early hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. HPB 14(9):635–645

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Llovet JM, Di Bisceglie AM, Bruix J, Kramer BS, Lencioni R, Zhu AX et al (2008) Design and endpoints of clinical trials in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 100(10):698–711

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Yao F, Xiao L, Bass N, Kerlan R, Ascher N, Roberts J (2007) Liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: validation of the UCSF-expanded criteria based on preoperative imaging. Am J Transplant 7(11):2587–2596

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Unek T, Karademir S, Arslan NC, Egeli T, Atasoy G, Sagol O et al (2011) Comparison of Milan and UCSF criteria for liver transplantation to treat hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol: WJG 17(37):4206

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Bellavance EC, Lumpkins KM, Mentha G, Marques HP, Capussotti L, Pulitano C et al (2008) Surgical management of early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma: resection or transplantation? J Gastrointest Surg 12(10):1699–1708

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Mazzaferro V, Regalia E, Doci R, Andreola S, Pulvirenti A, Bozzetti F et al (1996) Liver transplantation for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinomas in patients with cirrhosis. N Engl J Med 334(11):693–700

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Bruix J, Sherman M (2005) Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology (Baltimore, MD) 42(5):1208–1236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Schwarz RE, Abou-Alfa GK, Geschwind JF, Krishnan S, Salem R, Venook AP (2010) Nonoperative therapies for combined modality treatment of hepatocellular cancer: expert consensus statement. HPB 12(5):313–320

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Zhang L, Hu P, Chen X, Bie P (2014) Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) plus sorafenib versus TACE for intermediate or advanced stage hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 9(6):e100305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Wahl DR, Stenmark MH, Tao Y, Pollom EL, Caoili EM, Lawrence TS et al (2015) Outcomes after stereotactic body radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 34(5):452–459

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Liu L, Cao Y, Chen C, Zhang X, McNabola A, Wilkie D et al (2006) Sorafenib blocks the RAF/MEK/ERK pathway, inhibits tumor angiogenesis, and induces tumor cell apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma model PLC/PRF/5. Cancer Res 66(24):11851–11858

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Llovet JM, Ricci S, Mazzaferro V, Hilgard P, Gane E, Blanc J-F et al (2008) Sorafenib in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. N Engl J Med 359(4):378–390

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cheng A-L, Kang Y-K, Chen Z, Tsao C-J, Qin S, Kim JS et al (2009) Efficacy and safety of sorafenib in patients in the Asia-Pacific region with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a phase III randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 10(1):25–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Bruix J, Cheng A-L, Meinhardt G, Nakajima K, De Sanctis Y, Llovet J (2017) Prognostic factors and predictors of sorafenib benefit in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: analysis of two phase III studies. J Hepatol 67(5):999–1008

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Lencioni R, Kudo M, Ye SL, Bronowicki JP, Chen XP, Dagher L et al (2012) First interim analysis of the GIDEON (Global Investigation of therapeutic Decisions in hepatocellular carcinoma and of its treatment with sorafeNib) non-interventional study. Int J Clin Pract 66(7):675–683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Ikeda M, Mitsunaga S, Shimizu S, Ohno I, Takahashi H, Okuyama H et al (2014) Efficacy of sorafenib in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma refractory to transcatheter arterial chemoembolization. J Gastroenterol 49(5):932–940

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Abou-Alfa GK, Johnson P, Knox JJ, Capanu M, Davidenko I, Lacava J et al (2010) Doxorubicin plus sorafenib vs doxorubicin alone in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized trial. JAMA 304(19):2154–2160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Abou-Alfa GK, Niedzwieski D, Knox JJ, Kaubisch A, Posey J, Tan BR et al (2016) Phase III randomized study of sorafenib plus doxorubicin versus sorafenib in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): CALGB 80802 (Alliance). J Clin Oncol 34(4_suppl):192–192. https://doi.org/10.1200/jco.2016.34.4_suppl.192

  41. Cheng A-L, Finn RS, Qin S, Han K-H, Ikeda K, Piscaglia F et al (2017) Phase III trial of lenvatinib (LEN) vs sorafenib (SOR) in first-line treatment of patients (pts) with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (uHCC). J Clin Oncol 35(15):4001

    Google Scholar 

  42. El-Khoueiry AB, Sangro B, Yau T, Crocenzi TS, Kudo M, Hsu C et al (2017) Nivolumab in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (CheckMate 040): an open-label, non-comparative, phase 1/2 dose escalation and expansion trial. Lancet 389(10088):2492–2502

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Finn RS, Chan SL, Zhu AX, Knox JJ, Cheng A-L, Siegel AB et al (2017) KEYNOTE-240: randomized phase III study of pembrolizumab versus best supportive care for second-line advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 35(4_suppl). https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2017.35.4_suppl.TPS503

  44. Bruix J, Qin S, Merle P, Granito A, Huang Y-H, Bodoky G et al (2017) Regorafenib for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who progressed on sorafenib treatment (RESORCE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 389(10064):56–66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Yeo W, Mok TS, Zee B, Leung TW, Lai PB, Lau WY et al (2005) A randomized phase III study of doxorubicin versus cisplatin/interferon α-2b/doxorubicin/fluorouracil (PIAF) combination chemotherapy for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 97(20):1532–1538

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Gish RG, Porta C, Lazar L, Ruff P, Feld R, Croitoru A et al (2007) Phase III randomized controlled trial comparing the survival of patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma treated with nolatrexed or doxorubicin. J Clin Oncol 25(21):3069–3075

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Qin S, Bai Y, Lim HY, Thongprasert S, Chao Y, Fan J et al (2013) Randomized, multicenter, open-label study of oxaliplatin plus fluorouracil/leucovorin versus doxorubicin as palliative chemotherapy in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma from Asia. J Clin Oncol 31(28):3501–3508

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Oncology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

    Thayse Gardini Alvarenga

  2. Department of Medical Oncology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

    Pamela Carvalho Muniz

  3. Division of Medical Oncology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Hakaru Tadokoro

  4. Division of Medical Oncology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP) & Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil

    Ramon Andrade De Mello

  5. Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Ramon Andrade De Mello

  6. Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, Brazil

    Nora Manoukian Forones

Authors
  1. Thayse Gardini Alvarenga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pamela Carvalho Muniz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Hakaru Tadokoro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ramon Andrade De Mello
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Nora Manoukian Forones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ramon Andrade De Mello .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Medical Oncology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP) & Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Ramon Andrade De Mello

  2. Oncology Department, Henry Dunant Hospital Center, Athens, Greece

    Giannis Mountzios

  3. Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Álvaro A. Tavares

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Alvarenga, T.G., Muniz, P.C., Tadokoro, H., De Mello, R.A., Forones, N.M. (2019). Liver Cancer. In: De Mello, R., Mountzios, G., Tavares, Á. (eds) International Manual of Oncology Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16245-0_20

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation