Abstract
In the final chapter, heterotopia is explored via a case study. This analysis identifies the set of heterotopic features common to the wider category of leisure spaces, identifying the basic heterotopic ‘components’ common to spas, balneal or coastal resorts, and observing how these navigate from foreground to background in different temporal and spatial instances of leisure spaces. This concept of a basic heterotopic profile, previously argued in the book, implies that the built object can harbour a heterotopic potential within its spatial and physical features—features that are in themselves carriers of encodings of specific social orderings, imprinted on and shaping the object. The case study is designed as a comparative analysis of several concrete examples, followed by the focusing on the modernist time frame and the evolution of one Romanian embodiment of leisure space, (re)embodied under the communist regime. The heritage point of view is closely explored, in support of the book’s main argument: the heritage-as-heterotopia premise. The focus onto a specific spatio-temporal evolution of a leisure space—one of the categories of ‘other spaces’ approached by Foucault—showcases the heterotopic potential of the heritage object.
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Notes
- 1.
Audrey Bochaton, Bertrand Lefebvre. The rebirth of the hospital: Heterotopia and medical tourism in Asia. Asia on Tour: Exploring the rise of Asian tourism, 2008, 98, hal-01802299.
- 2.
F20
- 3.
Foucault , M. (2003) ‘Society Must be Defended’: Lectures at the Collège de France 1975–1976, trans. D. Macey, eds. M. Bertani and A. Fontana. New York: Picador, apud. Miller, Toby, Michel Foucault and leisure, chapter 12, 133–140, in Routledge Handbook of Leisure Studies, April 2013 (print), July 2013 (online), 135.
- 4.
Miller, Toby, Michel Foucault and leisure, chapter 12, 133–140, in Routledge Handbook of Leisure Studies, April 2013 (print), July 2013 (online), 138.
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See Cole, C. L. ‘Addiction, Exercise, and Cyborgs: Technologies of Deviant Bodies’, 261–276, in G. Rail (eds.), Sport and Postmodern Times. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998; Harvey, J. and Sparks, R., ‘The Politics of the Body in the Context of Modernity’, Quest 43 (2) 164–89, 1991; Rail, G. and Harvey, J., Body at Work: Michel Foucault and the Sociology of Sport, 164–179, in Sociology of Sport Journal, 12, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1995.
- 6.
This is not intended to be an exhaustive outline nor a historic evolution of leisure, resort or balneal spaces .
- 7.
Foucault , M., 20
- 8.
SPÂNU, S. (2012). The Balneary resource, a generator of built heritage . The stratigraphic features of Herculane Bath. în: Pândi Gavril, Moldovan Florin (ed.) Air and Water components of the environement, Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeana 2012, România, ISSN: 2067-743X.
- 9.
In the 70s, Dumazedier defined “leisure as activity, apart from the obligations of work, family and society, to indulge one’s own ‘free will’ for relaxation, diversion, amusing oneself, broadening one’s knowledge or improving one’s skills, such as the free exercise of one’s creative capacity, and one’s spontaneous social or volunteer participation in the life of the community.” Dumazedier, Joffre, 1974, Leisure and the Social System. In J. F. Murphy (Ed.), Concepts of Leisure. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, apud. Iwasaki, Y., Leisure and Meaning-Making: The Pursuit of a Meaningful Life Through Leisure, 287–302, in Global Leisure and the Struggle for a Better World, Beniwal, Anju, Jain, Rashmi, Spracklen, Karl (eds.), Leisure Studies in a Global Era Series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, 288.
- 10.
White, Jonathan, Introduction, 1–21, in Landscape, Seascape, and the Eco-Spatial Imagination, ed. Simon C. Estok, I-Chun Wang, and Jonathan White, First published 2016, Routledge, ISBN: 978-1-315-65731-8 (ebk), 3.
- 11.
Foucault , Michel, The History of Sexuality, Vol. 3: The Care of the Self, 1st (first) Vintage Books Edition, [Paperback (1988)], ISBN: 0-394-74155-2 (v.3), 66.
- 12.
Foucault , Michel, The History of Sexuality, Vol. 3: The Care of the Self, 1st (first) Vintage Books Edition, [Paperback(1988)], ISBN: 0-394-74155-2 (v.3), 66.
- 13.
Foucault , The History of Sexuality, Vol. 3: The Care of the Self, 66.
- 14.
Roche, Maurice, Lived Time, Leisure and Retirement, 54–79, in The Philosophy of Leisure, Edited by Tom Winnifrith and Cyril Barrett, Palgrave Macmillan, 1989, ISBN: 978-1-349-19731-6 (eBook), 56.
- 15.
“[…] work is, in various ways, a necessary activity”, “[…] its very necessity is at the basis of its potentially liberating character.”, “[…] leisure has value only in the context of work, as a complement to work. Whereas when it is divorced from work, and made an exclusive activity, it loses its value.” Sayers, Sean, Work, Leisure and Human Needs, 34–53, in The Philosophy of Leisure, Edited by Tom Winnifrith and Cyril Barrett, Palgrave Macmillan, 1989, ISBN: 978-1-349-19731-6 (eBook), 41, 42, 49.
- 16.
To the everyday production (attached to the homo faber), the counterpart is leisure (attached to the homo ludens). Deschenes, G. (2011). The Spiritual Anthropology of Leisure: The Homo Faber-religiosus-ludens. Counselling and Spirituality/Counseling et spiritualite, 30(2), 57–85, apud. Iwasaki, Y., Leisure and Meaning-Making: The Pursuit of a Meaningful Life Through Leisure, 287–302, in Global Leisure and the Struggle for a Better World, Beniwal, Anju, Jain, Rashmi, Spracklen, Karl (eds.), Leisure Studies in a Global Era Series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, 288.
- 17.
For Godbey, leisure “implies a low degree of time-consciousness, among other things.” Roche, Lived Time, Leisure…, 58. Kelly proposes three relational readings of leisure: as an extension (of work, and thus leisure is its similar counterpart), “in ‘opposition’ (polarized and demarcated) and [in a state of] ‘neutrality’ (they are distinct but not polarized).” Kelly, John, R. (1987). Freedom to Be: A New Sociology of Leisure. New York: Macmillan, apud. Iwasaki, Y., Leisure and Meaning-Making: The Pursuit of a Meaningful Life Through Leisure, 287–302, in Global Leisure and the Struggle for a Better World, Beniwal, Anju, Jain, Rashmi, Spracklen, Karl (eds.), Leisure Studies in a Global Era Series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018, 288.
- 18.
The structure proposed by John Kelly (1987), endows the leisure experience with decidedly ‘work’ related attributes: leisure is decision-making, creation, (as a by-product of decision and action), development as a process and constructed in relation to a context (situated); leisure is a complex act and it is an act of production (in the sense of a creation of meaning). Kelly, John, R. (1987). Freedom to Be: A New Sociology of Leisure. New York: Macmillan, apud. Iwasaki, Y., Leisure and Meaning-Making: The Pursuit of a Meaningful Life…, 287–302, in Global Leisure and the Struggle for a Better World, Beniwal, A., Jain, R., Spracklen, K. (eds.), Leisure Studies…, 288.
- 19.
Roche defines it as “The temporal order both framing and emergent within lived experience […]”, a universally common “primary structure of lived time [which] displays a unity of the three commonsensical dimensions present, past and future”, onto which groups or individuals attach and coordinate subjective, secondary structures of time, i.e. other “categories and measurements of time present in any given group, culture or civilisation”. Roche, Lived Time, Leisure…, 61.
- 20.
Time stresses are defined as “distortions, deformations and in a certain sense a loss of structure, in the primary personal time-structure.” Roche, Lived Time, Leisure…, 61.
- 21.
Bartling, Hugh, A master-planned community as heterotopia : The Villages, Florida, 165–178, in Heterotopia and the City, Dehaene and De Cauter, eds., Routledge, 2008, 166.
- 22.
Bartling, Hugh, A master-planned community…, 166.
- 23.
Rojek, Chris, An outline of the action approach to leisure studies, 13–25 in Vol. 24, No. 1, Leisure Studies, January, 2005, Routledge, 15. Quote—own emphasis added.
- 24.
Davies, Martin, Another Way of Being: Leisure and the Possibility of Privacy, 104–129, in The Philosophy of Leisure, Edited by Tom Winnifrith and Cyril Barrett, Palgrave Macmillan, 1989, ISBN: 978-1-349-19731-6 (eBook), 110.
- 25.
Roche, 65.
- 26.
Bartling, Hugh, A master-planned community…, 171.
- 27.
Bartling, Hugh, A master-planned community as heterotopia : The Villages, Florida, 165–178, in Heterotopia and the City, Dehaene and De Cauter, eds., Routledge, 2008, 171–3.
- 28.
“Consider, then, for an instant, my increasing delight and astonishment as I discover myself a thousand leagues from my homeland and let my senses slowly absorb the confused impressions of a world which is the perfect antithesis of ours.” Gerard de Nerval, Voyage en orient (1844), quote opening Chris Rojek’s Ways of Escape. Modern Transformations in Leisure and Travel, Palgrave Macmillan, 1993.
- 29.
Scott, David, Why Veblen Matters: The Role of Status Seeking in Contemporary Leisure, 385–400, in The Palgrave Handbook of Leisure Theory, editors: Karl Spracklen, Brett Lashua, Erin Sharpe, Spencer Swain, Palgrave Handbooks, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2017, 388.
- 30.
Scott, D., Why Velben Matters…, 388.
- 31.
Scott, David, Why Veblen Matters: The Role of Status Seeking in Contemporary Leisure, 385–400, in The Palgrave Handbook of Leisure Theory, editors: Karl Spracklen, Brett Lashua, Erin Sharpe, Spencer Swain, Palgrave Handbooks, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2017, 388.
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Schor, Juliet B., Overturning the Modernist Predictions: Recent Trends in Work and Leisure in the OECD, 203–215 in A Handbook of Leisure Studies, editors: Chris Rojek, Susan M. Shaw, A. J. Veal, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2006, 205.
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Chard, Chloe, Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography, 1600-1830, Manchester University Press, 1999, 3.
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Chard, Chloe, Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography, 1600-1830, Manchester University Press, 1999, 4.
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Chard, Pleasure and Guilt, 4.
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Rewtrakunphaiboon, Walaiporn, Film-induced Tourism: Inventing a Vacation to a Location, BU Academic Review, vol.8, no. 1., January–June 2009.
- 37.
The late 1990s and early 2000s saw a burgeoning expansion of the blog and the travel blog—a modern metamorphosis of the eighteenth–nineteenth century travel journal—which later on lost momentum in favour of the travel video-blog or vlog. These allow the prospective traveller to experience via proxy a specific space, practices and services, etc.
- 38.
Cohen, Erik, H., Preparation, simulation and the creation of community. Exodus and the case of diaspora education tourism, 124–138, in Coles, T., Dallen, J. Timothy, Tourism, diasporas and space, Routledge, 2004, 124.
- 39.
See Lowenthal, D. The Past is a Foreign Country, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985, as well as Dimitri Ioannides, Mara Cohen Ioannides, Jewish past as a foreign country, in Coles, T., Dallen, J. Timothy, Tourism, diasporas and space, Routledge, 2004.
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Medina Lansansky, D., Introduction (on Stewart, Jill, Performing Abroad: British Tourists in Italy and their Practices, 1840–1914), in Architecture and Tourism. Perception, performance and place, D. Medina Lasansky and Brian McLaren (eds.), Berg, 2004, 5.
- 41.
Dvorjetski, Estee, Leisure, Pleasure and Healing. Spa Culture and Medicine in Ancient Eastern Mediterranean, Brill, 2007, 47.
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Dvorjetski, E., Leisure, Pleasure and Healing…, 47.
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Dvorjetski, E., Leisure, Pleasure and Healing…, 427.
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Dvorjetski, E., Leisure, Pleasure and Healing…, 44.
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Lenoir, Eliane. Thermes et palestres à l’époque romaine, p. 62–76, în Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, no. 1, martie 1995, 68.
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Twigg, J., Bathing—the Body and Community Care, Psychology Press, 2000, 19.
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Twigg, Julia, Bathing—the Body and Community Care, Psychology Press, 2000, 19.
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Dvorjetski, Estee, Leisure, Pleasure and Healing. Spa Culture and Medicine in Ancient Eastern Mediterranean, Brill, 2007, 36.
- 49.
Heterotopia “has a precise and determined function within a society and the same heterotopia can, according to the synchrony of the culture in which it occurs, have one function or another.” Foucault , Michel, Of Other Spaces , apud. Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., eds., Heterotopia and the City. Public Space in a Post-civil society, Routledge, 2008, 18.
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Luce, J.V., Greek medicine from Asclepius to Hippocrates, 2001, Irish Journal of Medical Science, Jul–Sep; 170(3):200–2.
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Foucault , M., Of Other Spaces , in (eds.) Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City. Public space in a Post-civil Society, Routledge, 2008, 18
- 52.
Jarvie, G., Maguire, J., Stratification, sport and leisure practices and social mobilities, 20–23 in Jarvie, G., Maguire, J., Sport and leisure in social thought, Routledge, 1994, 21.
- 53.
The case of the Roman bathhouse, the medieval bath houses.
- 54.
Foucault , M., Of Other Spaces , in (eds.) Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City. Public space in a Post-civil Society, Routledge, 2008, 19.
- 55.
York, William H., Health and Wellness in Antiquity through the Middle Ages, Joseph P. Byrne (series editor), ABC-CLIO: Greenwood Press, 2012, 3.
- 56.
Karnoouch suggests the existence of such an illicit underground of the seaside Romanian resorts of the 70s and 80s, a parallel market, obscure or tolerated by the official ordering, and hidden behind the economic touristic profile: “during their stay, they [international tourists] used to exchange hard currency on the black market for ten or fifteen times the official rate, while others did a trade in their summer clothes or ‘blue jeans’ […] bathing costumes, stockings, as well as contraceptives, from which they made a handsome profit”. Karnoouch, C., From the Particular to the General. Or how Communist Romania Confirmed its Integration in Global Capitalism through its Vast Social and Subsequently Tourist Project to Urbanise the Black Sea Coast, 146–159, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015, 154.
- 57.
Foucault , M., Of Other Spaces , in (eds.) Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City. Public space in a Post-civil Society, Routledge, 2008, 21.
- 58.
Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz, The White Plague. Cf. DUBOS, René e DUBOS, Jean—The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man and Society. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1996, p.xvi-xxxii.
- 59.
Feltham’s 1806 A guide to all the watering and sea-bathing places; with a description of the lakes; a sketch of a tour in Wales; and Itineraries, (Feltham, John, Publisher London: R. Phillips, 1806), opens with a comprehensive map of the road network connecting all the points of interest for the potential bather in Britain.
- 60.
Hetherington, K., The Badlands of Modernity: Heterotopia and Social Ordering,
- 61.
Jarvie, G., Maguire, J., Stratification, sport and leisure practices and social mobilities, 20–23 in Jarvie, G., Maguire, J., Sport and leisure in social thought, Routledge, 1994, 21.
- 62.
Ankre, Rosemarie, Understanding the Visitor. A Prerequisite for Coastal Zone Planning, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Licentiate Dissertation Series No. 2007:09, School of Technoculture, Humanities and Planning, Sweden, 2007, ISBN: 978-91-7295-122-8, p. 28, footnote 10.
- 63.
“The land owners have to accept other people’s occasional presence on their land, but there should be no damages or disturbances. Certain products of the nature (for example, mushrooms, berries and plants that are not under protection) are free to pick”, Blücher, G., Böhme, K., Gruppe, O. and Turowski, G. (2001). Tysk-svensk handbok för planeringsbegrepp. Stockholm: ARL/Nordregio/Blekinge Institute of Technology, apud. Ankre, Rosemarie, Understanding the Visitor. A Prerequisite for Coastal Zone Planning, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Licentiate Dissertation Series No. 2007:09, School of Technoculture, Humanities and Planning, Sweden, 2007, ISBN: 978-91-7295-122-8, p. 28.
- 64.
What outdoor activities (camping, picking berries and mushrooms, horse riding etc.) and their restrictions are strictly defined in the text of the Right to Public Access.
- 65.
http://www.swedishepa.se/Enjoying-nature/The-Right-of-Public-Access/This-is-allowed1/Fences-and-signs/, Last updated: 26 February 2018 Content editor: Sanja Kuruzovic, accessed september 2018.
- 66.
Ankre, Rosemarie, Understanding the Visitor. A Prerequisite for Coastal Zone Planning, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Licentiate Dissertation Series No. 2007:09, School of Technoculture, Humanities and Planning, Sweden, 2007, ISBN: 978-91-7295-122-8, p. 28.
- 67.
Dehaene, Michiel, De Cauter, Lieven, footnote n.25 to Foucault ’s Of Other Spaces essay, in Heterotopia and the City. Public space in a Post-civil Society, Routledge, 2008, 27.
- 68.
Foucault , M., Of Other Spaces , in (eds.) Dehaene, M., De Cauter, L., Heterotopia and the City. Public space in a Post-civil Society, Routledge, 2008, 21.
- 69.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Dictionar de simboluri, volume 1 (A-D), Editura Artemis, Bucharest, 1994, ISBN: 973-566-026-1, page 108, initially published as Dictionnaire des symboles. Mythes, reves, coutumes, gestes, forms, figures, couleurs, nombres, Editions Robert Laffont, S.A., Paris, 1969.
- 70.
Bachelard, Gaston, Apa si visele. Eseu despre imaginatia materiei, editura Univers, translated by Mavrodin, Irina, Bucharest, 1995, ISBN: 973-34-0303-2, page 19; initially published as L’Eau et les Reves, Essai sur l’imagination de la matiere, Librarie Jose Corti, 1942.
- 71.
The term oasis illustrates the permeation from a very culturally and geographically anchored locus, the traveller’ physical space of peace and respite for the traveller (arising from water’s fecundity), to a universally assumed idea of shelter and retreat.
- 72.
Eliade, Mircea, Istoria credintelor si ideilor religioase (Histoire des croyances at des idees religieuses), volume 1, publisher: Editura stiintifica, Bucharest, 1991, first published in French, Payot, Paris, 1976, ISBN: 973-44-0027-4, p. 172.
- 73.
“Only the water of the christening can cleanse the sins and it is bestowed only once, for it allows the commencing of a new state: that of a man without sin. The discarding of the previous self, or rather this momentary death of history can be compared with a flood, for it symbolizes a disappearance, an annihilation: an epoch ends, another, new, is born.” Chevalier, Gheerbrant, Dictionar de simboluri…, 111.
- 74.
“These heterotopias , there might be a sort of mixed, in-between experience, which would be the mirror. The mirror is, after all, a utopia , since it is a place without place. In the mirror, I see myself there where I am not, in an unreal space that virtually opens up behind the surface; I am over there, there where I am not, a sort of shadow that gives me my own visibility, that enables me to see myself there where I am absent. Utopia of the mirror. But it is also a heterotopia in so far as the mirror does really exist, and as it exerts on the place I occupy a sort of return effect; it is starting from the mirror that I discover my absence in the place where I am, since I see myself over there. Starting from this gaze that is, as it were, cast upon me, from the depth of this virtual space that is on the other side of the looking glass, I come back towards myself and I begin again to direct my eyes towards myself and to reconstitute myself there where I am. The mirror functions as a heterotopia in the respect that it renders this place that I occupy at the moment when I look at myself in the looking glass at once absolutely real, connected with all the space that surrounds it, and absolutely unreal, since, in order to be perceived, it has to pass through this virtual point, which is over there.”
- 75.
Bachelard, Gaston, Apa si visele…, 31.
- 76.
Bachelard, 31.
- 77.
Chevalier, Jean, Gheerbrant, Dictionar de simboluri, volume 1 (A-D), Editura Artemis, Bucharest, 1994, ISBN: 973-566-026-1, page 107, initially published as Dictionnaire des symboles. Mythes, reves, coutumes, gestes, forms, figures, couleurs, nombres, Editions Robert Laffont, S.A., Paris, 1969.
- 78.
Chevalier, Gheerbrant, Dictionar de simboluri, volume 2 (E-O), Artemis, Bucharest, 1994, 332.
- 79.
Chevalier, Gheerbrant, Dictionar…, 116.
- 80.
Although this is not always the case: the water source of the Zambezi River, despite being deemed as a sacred site, the birthplace of Zambia and having curative powers, has not generated ‘traditional’ religious or exploitation architectural structures, holding the official protection status of natural site.
- 81.
This is the case of the Temple of Poseidon at (Cape) Sounion, Greece, and Temple of Poseidon at Tainaron, Mani Province, Greece.
- 82.
Such as the well-known spa towns of Bath (UK), Spa (BE), or those of Abano Terme and Montegrotto (IT), Vichy (FR), Baden-Baden (DE) Caldas de Rainha (PT), Caldes de Malavella (SP) or the lesser known Hisarya (BG), Rogaška Slatina (SI) Trenčianske Teplice (SL), or Baile Herculane (RO).
- 83.
SPÂNU, S. (2012). The Balneary resource, a generator of built heritage . The stratigraphic features of Herculane Bath. în: Pândi Gavril, Moldovan Florin (ed.) Air and Water components of the environement, Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeana 2012, România, ISSN: 2067-743X.
- 84.
The first official developments took place in the early 2000s (with a gap of almost 30 years from Great Britain or other European countries); the Romanian officials and academia (publications, articles and workshops) align themselves with the European attitudes and legislative, culminating in the 2008 Law for the Industrial Heritage ; the recognition of industrial has been solidified and expanding ever since (numerous attempts to record and classify—the first most important step of heritage conservation ; safeguard attempts driven by the public sector, etc.) all amounting to an increasing visibility of the industrial fabric.
- 85.
Some of the generations who have worked in these factories, now in their 50 and 60s, are still in the contemporary active working class (due to shortages in a specialized workforce) or have recently left the active sector, now in the early retiree class.
- 86.
For the specialized academia (architecture universities and faculties) the modernist style remained a major landmark and model, as a means of legitimation—mostly reclaiming a connection to the interwar modernist heritage , and mostly focusing its attention on the residential and cultural sector.
- 87.
Popescu, C. Observes that summer residencies and seaside holidays were rather rare until the 1918s. Popescu, Carmen, Le style National Roumain. Construire una Nation a travers l’architecture 1881–1945, Rennes, Bucharest: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Editura Simetria, 2004, apud. Predescu, Magda, Architecture and Monumental Art on the Romanian Seaside in the period of “Political Thaw”. The development of the Costinesti Youth Camp (1970–1972), in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015, 111.
- 88.
The first sanatorium is built in Techirgiol in 1899, and by the 1940s resorts such as Balcic, Eforie (“one of South-Eastern Europe’s most prestigious spa-resorts ”) and Mamaia already have “districts of modern villas” along with other amenities built in the modernist style and its subcategory streamline style/streamline moderne, in accord with the European architecture stage. Cicio-Pop, Alexandru, Puscaru, Valeriu, Badautza, Alexandru, Guide de la Roumanie, ed. Ghidul Romaniei, Bucharest, 1940, 356, 363–4, apud. Popescu, Carmen, An effective mechanics: the Romanian seaside in the socialist period, 12–39, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015, 16.
- 89.
Tulbure presents in a more detailed manner the dichotomy of this process—part an institutionalized annihilation of the creative identity and part resilient metamorphosis followed by its timid reaffirmation during the relaxation of the communist system in the 60s. Tulbure, Irina, Arhitectura si urbanism in Romania anilor 1944–1960: constrangere si experiment [Architecture and Urbanism in Romania, 1944–1960: Constraint and Experiment], ed. Simetria, Bucuresti, 2016.
- 90.
Bancescu, Irina, Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism. Architecture between Political Constraints and Mass Tourism in Post-war European Context, 40–69, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015.
- 91.
Tulbure argues that the short period after the war defined by socialist architecture or socialist realism can only be considered as a transitional phase, despite “breaking the modernist direction of architectural development that had reached a certain maturity before the war”. Tulbure, I., Arhitectura…, 8, 10–12.
- 92.
Tulbure, I., Arhitectura…, 152.
- 93.
Popescu, Carmen, An Effective Mechanics: the Romanian Seaside in the Socialist Period, 12–39, in Enchanting Views…, Serban, A., Dimou, K., Istudor, S. (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015, 14.
- 94.
See the chapters of Tublure, Maxim, and Bradeanu in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture …, Serban, A., Dimoou, K., Istudor, S., published by: pepluspatru, 2015.
- 95.
Popescu, C., An Effective Mechanics…, 18.
- 96.
The Eforie-Nord complex is opened in 1957. The Mangalia Rest Ensemble (Ansamblului de odihna Mangalia) in Mangalia, with multiple hotels (Scala, Zenit, Astra, Orion, Zefir, Cazino Restaurant and several protocol villas) is opened to the public in 1959.
- 97.
Bancescu, I., Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism…, 45.
- 98.
Popescu, C., An Effective Mechanics…, 19, 21.
- 99.
Bancescu, I., Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism. Architecture between Political Constraints and Mass Tourism in Post-war European Context, 40–69, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015, 43.
- 100.
One such example is quoted by Bancescu: the “new feature” of the canteen-restaurant attached to the Eforie I complex (1957) [Bancescu, I., Development of the Romanian Seaside …, 46]. This would be a hybrid function inexistent until then at this scale; the appeal to several architectural devices aimed at dissimulating the scale and the capacity of the unit reveals uncertainty in dealing with such hybrids, different in form, function and representation from the industrial canteens as well as from the urban, leisure and even high-end yet smaller scaled restaurants.
- 101.
Popescu, An Effective…, 20.
- 102.
Locar, Marcel, Pentru dezvoltarea urbanismului socialist, [“For the development of Socialist Urbanism”], Arhitectura RPR, no. 4: 4–7, 1960, apud. Popescu, C., An Effective Mechanics…, 23.
- 103.
Statiunea Aurora. Convorbire cu arhitectul Dinu Gheorghiu/Aurora Resort. A conversation with architect Dinu Gheorghiu, in Revista Arhitectura [Architecture Magazine], no. A6, 1973, 25.
- 104.
Bancescu notes the case of the downtown of Mangalia: “the planning was to alter the town’s seafront, under the pretext of cost efficiency and exploitation of natural attractions and architectural discoveries” and ending up irremediably altering the local identity. Bancesu, I., Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism…, 49.
- 105.
According to Bancescu—the largest complex in the country and one of the largest in Europe at the time. Bancescu, Development…, 51.
- 106.
Bancescu, I., Development…, 52.
- 107.
Asked on the relation between architecture and the imposed use of prefabrication in Auror Resort project (a atypical, non-uniform example of the prefab architecture of the period), Gheorghiu answered: “How else might have we finished, with any other means, in just a few months, the 3000 beds equivalent to approximately 11 newly built hotels for cities within the territory, whose construction lasted for each six months?”, Statiunea Aurora. Convorbire cu arhitectul Dinu Gheorghiu in Revista Arhitectura, A6/1973, 25.
- 108.
The development of the Romanian seaside differs from similar endeavours of the time in the intent to create individual, distinct and stand-alone resorts , separated by lush green areas, and not a continuous front along the shoreline; where the terrain constraints did not allow this and the merging of these resorts was inevitable (Venus—Cap Aurora—Jupiter; Mangalia—Saturn; Neptun—Olimp), the sole medium to express the individuality remained the urban planning and the architecture .
- 109.
Venus (built: 1969–1971) showcases a set of low to medium rise hotels built in different phases, all wielding feminine names (Dana, Raluca, Doina, Sanda, Ileana, etc.); a set of three tower-hotels from the same resort all wielding avian names (Vulturul/The Eagle, Cocorul/The Crane, Pajura/The Griffin). Olimp resort (1971) showcases several such “sets”: Traian Hotel, Decebal Hotel; Hotel Transilvania, Hotel Banat, Hotel Crisana, Hotel Moldova, Hotel Oltenia, Hotel Muntenia—after the Romanian historic provinces; Amfiteatru (amphitheatre), Panoramic, Belvedere, all names related to their positioning and architecture .
- 110.
These segregations are however debatable, at least for the first part of the Ceausescu regime; the seaside was accessible through various state-governed intermediaries: youth and student association (UTC/ Uniunea Tineretului Comunist din R.S. România/Communist Youth Union; ASC/Communist Students’ Association) would offer tickets/coupons in summer camps structured by age groups (Navodari ages 2–13; Costinesti 14–20/22). The trade unions (UGSR/Romanian General Syndicate Union) would offer vacation tickets mainly focused on health and rest in balneal sanatoriums and hotels (seaside: Eforie, Techirghiol; also Baile Herculane, Borsec, Felix; also in specific hotels within these resorts , hotels that would become inaccessible to the wider population); these all-inclusive coupons (boarding, treatment), covered longer rest periods than the customary 10 days, multiple seasons, and had lower prices, making them the most desirable, and thus requiring an in advance registration. Outside of these specific homogenous groups, the ONT/OJT bureaus (The National Tourism Office, The District Tourism Office) would offer holiday tickets/coupons for the wider population (including international tourists) almost anywhere on the seaside, by price ranges; ONT/OJT would function based on a regional/zonal distribution system, meaning that local tourist from certain regions would be preferentially offered certain hotels and resorts . The ONT also handled the international tourist, covering all needs—organized transport or car rentals, lodgings, entertainment or access to other local entertainment, local visits, currency exchange, etc. Finally, what would be considered the most accessible means for a seaside tourist—the self-management or camping—appears to be the most easy and unstructured form of tourism, yet rather challenging due to restricted access to personal vehicles and later on in the regime to fuel; it remained, however, a go-to solution for many, favoured by the extensive railroad network.
- 111.
Bancesu, Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism…, 66.
- 112.
Popescu, An Effective Mechanics…, 39.
- 113.
Bancescu, ibidem.
- 114.
Bancescu, 67.
- 115.
Bancesu, Development of the Romanian Seaside under Communism…, 67–69.
- 116.
This is, however, not the only one of this kind of sub-segregation, two other noteworthy examples being the ‘political enclave’—the spaces reserved by the party for international protocol meetings or for the holidaying of high-profile individuals within the party (Neptun)—and the ‘camping enclave’ or the more informal string of resorts (Costinesti, 2 Mai, Vama Veche, Navodari holiday village; staying with local host was also an option); these were less developed and focused on a less pretentious public—children and youth—and thus remained somewhat outside the controlled leisure structuring found in on the rest of the coast. As a practice, camping was, however, not restricted to these resorts but constituted a network of official and unofficial spaces. Among these informal resorts , 2 Mai was especially preferred by artist communities—actors, painters and graphic designers, musicians, etc.
- 117.
Beyer, Elke and Hagemann, Anke, Bulgaria Builds. Holiday Architecture and Urbanism on the Black Sea Coast from 1950s to 1970s, 206–223, and Kazakova, Olga, Resort Architecture during the Era of Soviet Modernism (as Exemplified by the Soviet Black Sea Coast), 224–235, both in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015.
- 118.
The Archive of Romanian Architect’s Union [Uniunea Arhitecților din România] holds several sets of photographs resulting from various “documentary expeditions” in Bulgaria undertook in the period; the preeminent subjects are architectural plastics, technical solutions and earth/terrain works, architectural typologies or interior furnishings—a large part of which are focused on seaside leisure spaces . https://arhiva.uniuneaarhitectilor.ro/, accessed October 2018.
- 119.
The now common phrase “to go in conservation ” is far from what it might suggest, as it has little to do with any heritage approach: the private/public owners have simply locked up and closed the hotels, restaurants and other facilities. Vacated, without any maintenance or security the buildings decay rapidly.
- 120.
This is the case of Hotel Restaurant Vulturul, Hotel Restaurant Cocorul, Hotel Restaurant Pajura (Venus Resort) and Hotel Alfa and Hotel Beta (Saturn Resort). Deemed unprofitable (expensive rehabilitation) or unsuitable for tourist accommodation (space-wise), they are to be rehabilitated as permanent housing—either for the use of the personnel of the owner company (as company housing) or for sale on the real-estate market. Source: online official declaration of THS Marea Neagra (owner company) for 2012, http://www.thrmareaneagra.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/18-scoaterea-din-circuitul-turistic.pdf, accessed September 2018.
- 121.
For the Romanian space one such preceding example is the “ambitious project of marshal Ion Antonescu for the systematization of all settlements in the Romanian territory”; this large-scale project had already been primed starting with the interwar phase—through a set of connecting projects such as the enhancing of the road network, the industrialization of agriculture or the creation of a common standard of living; these approaches reveal similarities between the two succeeding regimes, both sharing a differently branded yet all-encompassing utopian vision, the relation with an ideal model and the subordination of all demarches to it. Even the architectural standardization commonly associated with the communist regime is already in use in the pre-war period as a tool in the systematization projects (the prolific model house projects). Although redesigned and rebranded, the project for the systematization of settlements, town and cities remains a leitmotif during Ceausescu’s regime. A more in-depth perspective on the subject see Tulbure, I., Arhitectura…, chapter Ideas for the Reconstruction , 57–69.
- 122.
Karnoouh, Claude, From the Particular to the General or how communist Romania Confirmed its Integration in Global Capitalism through its Vast Social and Subsequently Tourist Project to Urbanise the Black Sea Coast, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture …, Serban, A., Dimoou, K., Istudor, S., 147.
- 123.
Tulbure, Irina, Arhitectura si urbanism in Romania anilor 1944–1960: constrangere si experiment [Architecture and Urbanism in Romania, 1944–1960: Constraint and Experiment], ed. Simetria, Bucuresti, 2016, 10. However, as Tulbure observes, the first post-war years (pre-50s) will see an architectural production moulded after the Stalinist model and its traditionalist approach—a continuation of the past, yet starting from a phase considered as “healthy”.Tulbure, I., Arhitectura…, 26.
- 124.
Bancescu, ibidem., 69.
- 125.
Statiunea Aurora. Convorbire cu arhitectul Dinu Gheorghiu/Aurora Resort. A conversation with architect Dinu Gheorghiu, in Revista Arhitectura [Architecture Magazine], no. A6, 1973, 25.
- 126.
This is the case of the Baile Herculane balneal resort or spa-town, analysed in more detail in SPÂNU, S. (2012). The Balneary resource, a generator of built heritage . The stratigraphic features of Herculane Bath. în: Pândi Gavril, Moldovan Florin (ed.) Air and Water components of the environment, Cluj-Napoca: Presa Universitară Clujeana 2012, România, ISSN: 2067-743X.
- 127.
As previously discussed, in an international context the formula is not essentially new—not in terms of the concept of mass leisure and its attached practices nor in those of the chosen architectural language —yet it can be considered new in the Romanian context, as well as in its particular features generated by the locally imposed constraints and opportunities.
- 128.
This ‘retrospective comparative analysis’ appears in narratives of interviewees increasingly often, motivated by the opening towards the international tourist market and the subsequent diversification of offers, paired with the consistent decline in the quality of services on the Romanian seaside . This is a generalizing, biased attitude towards the matter in terms of both the present and the past. The communist blueprint of the Romanian seaside had a hierarchized and segregationist scheme for both resorts and hotels based on income and social position, despite the democratic motto ‘the seaside for everybody’ (or, as one might argue, exactly by virtue of a programmatic accessibility)—implying different quality standards for different income thresholds, and not a generalized exceptional standard. Similarly, this negative perception disregards the existence of high-standard resorts which still place the Romanian seaside among the top holiday destinations in the country.
- 129.
Although less mentioned, the seaside project falls within this category along with the more prominent Palace of Parliament (former People’s House) in Bucharest; without the removal of the negative encoding (and even in spite of it), these places are sometimes evoked with a sense of pride—mostly due to their scale and impressive constructive demarche.
- 130.
Tulbure, Irina, Cezar Lazarescu. The Early Years of Seaside Development, 92–109, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015.
- 131.
Bradeanu, Adina, Tourism, Car-boots, Cinema: Considering Sahia’s “Orphan” Films, 160–179, in Enchanting Views: Romanian Black Sea Tourism Planning and Architecture of the 1960s and 70s, Serban, Alina, Dimou, Kaliopi, Istudor, Sorin (eds.), Published by pepluspatru Association, ISBN: 978-973-0-18345-0, Bucharest, 2015.
- 132.
Foucault , M., Of Other Spaces , in Dehaene, De Cauter, Hetereotopia and the City…, 17.
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Spanu, S. (2020). Case Study. In: Heterotopia and Heritage Preservation. The Urban Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18259-5_6
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