Abstract
Medical and Taoist sources written or compiled during the Han dynasty (208 BCE–220) provide the first accounts, reflections, and theories on the self, on disease, and on the relationships between humans and the world in which they live. This chapter focuses on this particular period of time which, in fact, lays important foundations for Chinese society and culture. Relying mainly on medical and Taoist sources, it firstly sheds light on how the self was thought of and represented at this time and examines how the links between human beings and their environment were conceived of. It then focuses on what, for humans and in the environment, were thought of as potential threats to health and how the image of an ideal landscape was thus constructed, that is, a landscape into which humans could fit perfectly and live healthy lives. Finally, we analyze how this ideal landscape was supposed to work to preserve good health in humans.
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Notes
- 1.
I would like to warmly thank the two anonymous reviewers for their pertinent remarks and very stimulating questions that allowed me to improve this article.
- 2.
- 3.
This notion of ying 應, “correspondence and resonance,” well developed especially in the Huainanzi, is at the heart of this issue of the relationships between things and beings. It is because things are classified according to categories that if one thing within these categories begins to move, there is a principle of stimulus and response between two things of the same category due to their affinity. A special bond is then created between these two indivisible things, like sound and its echo. On this notion, see in particular Charles Le Blanc 1985.
- 4.
Our choice of the expression “space-time” is also intended to convey the fact that in Chinese thinking the two are interdependent; in other words, the body is not considered as something static but moving and in constant evolution.
- 5.
Huainan zi zhushi 淮南子註釋, Chap. 7, p. 100.
- 6.
For correspondence with the human body, see in particular the Chunqiu fanlu 春秋 繁 露 attributed to Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (175/179–115/104) but which would in fact be a compilation by multiple authors, juan 13, Chapters 56 and 60; other chapters in this work also address these correspondences. Cf. Nathan Sivin (1995), p. 5–37.
- 7.
Daode jing, Chap. 25. (transl. From Robert G. Henricks, Lao-Tzu Te-Tao Ching. A new translation based on the recently discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts. New York, Ballantine Books, 1989, p. 77.).
- 8.
Cf. Christoph Harbsmeier (2010), p. 220–254.
- 9.
Cf. Heiner Roetz (2010), p. 198–219.
- 10.
Cf. Catherine Despeux (2007), p. 71–94.
- 11.
Wang Bing, who had a very senior position in the Imperial administration, is the author of the oldest commentary on the Basic Questions (Suwen 素問), part of the Inner Classic of the Yellow Thearch (Huangdi neijing 黃帝內經) to have reached us; the Basic Questions was submitted to the throne in 762. This author not only commented on the text but redesigned it, changing the order of the chapters and increasing the length of some. From the Tang (618–907), the text became a study document for the official instruction given in medical schools.
- 12.
See the translation by Paul Unschuld and Hermann Tessenow, in collaboration with Zheng Jinsheng (2011 p. 218).
- 13.
Traditional Chinese medicine distinguishes two main types of breath: nourishing breath, which circulates in the deeper layers of the body and is carried by the blood, and defensive (guard) breath, more on the surface of the body, which protects it from external aggressions.
- 14.
Huangdi neijing Lingshu 黃帝內經靈樞, Chap. 71 (translation by P. Unschuld, 2016, p.634–636).
- 15.
While some comparisons seem to be explicit, such as the heaven and the head, round, or the Earth and the feet, flat and square surfaces, others are less so, such as the correspondence between the 12 earthly branches and the toes plus the penis and the testicles which seem stranger to us and the relation established between the 4 seasons and the 4 limbs and between the stars and teeth.
- 16.
“Yifa fangyi lun” 異法方宜論, Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 4, Chap. 12, (translation by P. U. Unschuld and Hermann Tessenow, in collaboration with Zheng Jinsheng, 2011, vol. 1, p. 210, 216).
- 17.
On this theme, cf. Isabelle Robinet (1986), p. 87–105.
- 18.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 1, Chap. 1 “Shanggu tianzhen lun” 上古天真論. (transl. by P. U. Unschuld, 2011, vol. 1, p. 44).
- 19.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 14, Chap. 54 “Zhenjie” 鍼解. Translated by Unschuld, 2011, vol. 2, p. 21–22.
- 20.
Cf. Catherine Despeux (2011).
- 21.
For example, Xuanji 旋 機 (21 VC), “armillary sphere,” a point on the median line of the front of the body, not far from the heart, is the name of four stars of the “Northern Bushel,” the Chinese name of the Big Dipper; the seven stars of the Big Dipper revolve round the motionless pole star; they evoke the form of a measure of capacity used in China, the bushel, similar to a large parallelepiped ladle.
- 22.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 8, Chap. 25 Treatise on the Preservation of Life and the Integrity of the Body (Baoming quanxing lun 保命全形論). Transl. by Unschuld, 2011, vol. 1, p. 419.
- 23.
Baihutong yi 白虎通義, juan 2, Chap. “Eight Winds” (Bafeng 八風).
- 24.
Huangdi neijing Lingshu, juan 11, Chap. 77 “Nine palaces and Eight Winds” (Jiugong bafeng 九宮八風), p. 117–119.
- 25.
Zhuangzi criticizes these methods which, according to him, are not worth a spiritual attitude of calm and simplicity which he calls the “fasting of the heart.” He says, “Exhale the sounds chui 吹 and xu 呴, spit out the old breath and absorb the new, imitating the bear hanging on the tree or the bird taking flight is the ideal of those who want to maintain their bodies through gymnastic practices (daoyin 導引) and are in the same vein as Pengzu 彭祖, who lived more than eight hundred years” (translation by Burton Watson). See Zhuangzi jijie 莊子 集解 by Wang Xianqian 王先謙, ed. Zhuzi jicheng, Shanghai, Shanghai shudian, 1986, volume 3, Chap. 15 “Carving out Creative Thinking,” p. 96.
- 26.
Cf. Catherine Despeux (2006), p. 37–67.
- 27.
Cf. Zhuangzi jijie, Chap. 2 “The Equality of Things” (Qiwu lun 齊物論).
- 28.
Cf. Frédéric Obringer (2009), p. 7.
- 29.
Cf. Ronald G. Knapp (2006).
- 30.
Cf. François Jullien (1992).
- 31.
A first series of spatiotemporal markers, 10 in number for a series based on the 5 agents , the 5 orients (4 cardinal points plus the center), and the 5 periods of the year (4 seasons plus an intermediate period), is combined with a series of 12 markers qualifying the 12 2-hour periods in 1 day or the 12 months in a year, to give a cycle of 60 which serves to qualify the days, months, and years. Thus, for the birth date, two markers (one from the quinary series and one from the duodenary series) indicate the time, two markers indicate the hour, two markers indicate the day, two others indicate the month, and two others indicate the year.
- 32.
Wang Bing’s eighth-century commentary specifies that the different therapies are acupuncture and stone needles, moxa and cauterizations, toxic remedies, gymnastic movements, and massages.
- 33.
Wang Bing’s commentary says: by the configuration of the land, we mean that we model ourselves on the devices of birth, growth, contemplation, burial, on the top and bottom, and dry and damp.
- 34.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 2, chap. 12 “Yifa fang yi lun 異法方宜論.” (transl. Unschuld, 2011, vol. 1, p. 211–212.).
- 35.
Cf. Christoph Harbsmeier, (2010), p. 224.
- 36.
This is one of the roles of a typically Chinese functional organ called the “triple burner” (sanjiao 三焦). According to the Inner Classic of the Yellow Thearch , “The triple burner has the official function as opener of channels. The paths of water originate in it” (Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 3, Chap. 8, “Secrets Documents from the Library of Orchids and Spirits” (Linglan bidian 靈 蘭 秘 典) (Discourse on the Hidden Canons in the Numinous Orchid [Chambers], p. 49–51)).
- 37.
Cf. Kristofer Schipper (2001), p. 80–86.
- 38.
Cf. Baud Berthier et al. (2004).
- 39.
A work attributed to Confucius or his disciples but in reality a collection of ancient texts compiled under Emperor Wu (r. 156–87) of the Han. It describes the social forms, the administrative system, and the ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). This book had a great influence on Chinese culture and social behavior throughout history.
- 40.
Liji jishuo 禮記集說, juan 8, Chap. 23, p. 253.
- 41.
Cf. Shanhai jing, transl. Rémi Mathieu 1983.
- 42.
Cf. Baize jingguai tu 百澤精怪圖, Text of the Six Dynasties. See Catherine Despeux (2003), p. 436–443.
- 43.
- 44.
A poem by Wang Yanshou 王延壽 from the Eastern Han, in Wenxuan zhu 文選註 (Anthology of Commented Literature) (circa 520) by Xiao Tong 蕭統, commentary by Li Shan 李善 of the Tang, juan 11, p. 23, ed. SKQS. (translation by David R. Knechtges, Wen Xuan or Selections of Refined Literature. Volume two “Rhapsodies on Sacrifices, Hunting, Travel, Sightseeing, Palaces and Halls, Rivers and Seas,” Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1987, vol. 2, p. 273).
- 45.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 1, Chap. 1, p. 1. Transl. Unschuld, 2011, vol. 1, p. 31–32.
Cf. Catherine Despeux (2007), p. 71–94.
- 46.
Huangdi neijing Suwen, juan 4, Chap. 13, “Moving the essences and transforming the breaths” (Yijing bianqi lun 易精變氣論).
- 47.
Cf. John Lagerwey (1994), p. 323–331.
- 48.
Daode jing, Chap. 25.
- 49.
Transl. Rémi Mathieu (1989) p. 28–29.
- 50.
Guo Si 郭思 (ca. 1000–1090), “Lingquan gaozhi 林泉高致,” part “Instructions on the mountain and water” (Shanshui xun 山水訓) , ed. SKQS.
- 51.
Cf. Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, (1995), p. 57.
- 52.
This is the central theme of one of the Four Books, The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸), elaborating on “the center and harmony” (zhonghe 中和).
- 53.
Musical theory in China is based on 5 principal sounds corresponding to the 5 agents and thus enter into the system of correlations of the 5 agents ; it is also based on 6 pitch pipes (in fact 12) which fixed the pitch of the notes and inserted them into the system of correlations of the 12 periods of time.
- 54.
Cf., for example, Huangdi neijing Lingshu, juan 1, Chap. 1 “The Twelve Sources of Acupuncture” (Jiuzhen shier yuan 九針十二原), on the manipulation of the needle: “We welcome it (the pneuma, qi); we follow it in imagination to harmonize it; like that, the way of acupuncture is accomplished.” 迎之隨之以意和之箴道畢也.
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Despeux, C. (2019). Landscaped Environment and Health in Han China (208 BCE–220). In: Bretelle-Establet, F., Gaille, M., Katouzian-Safadi, M. (eds) Making Sense of Health, Disease, and the Environment in Cross-Cultural History: The Arabic-Islamic World, China, Europe, and North America. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science, vol 333. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19082-8_4
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